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Oriental Orthodoxy is the communion ofEastern Christian churches that recognize only threeecumenical councils—theFirst Council of Nicaea, theFirst Council of Constantinople and theCouncil of Ephesus. They reject thedogmatic definitions of theCouncil of Chalcedon. Hence, these churches are also calledOld Oriental Churches orNon-Chalcedonian Churches.
The history of Oriental Orthodoxy goes back to the beginnings of Christianity.[1]
The Oriental Orthodox Churches had a great missionary role during the early stages of Christianity and played a great role in the history of Egypt.[2]
According to the canons of the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the four bishops ofRome,Alexandria,Ephesus (later transferred toConstantinople) andAntioch were all given status aspatriarchs, the ancient apostolic centers of Christianity by theFirst Council of Nicaea (predating the schism). Each patriarch was responsible for the bishops and churches within his own area of the universal catholic Church (with the exception of thePatriarch of Jerusalem, who was independent of the rest) with the Bishop of Rome as "first among equals" as the successor to Peter and seat of the Petrine Ministry of unity and authority.
Theschism between Oriental Orthodoxy and the rest of theRoman state church occurred in the 5th century.[3] The separation resulted in part from the refusal ofDioscorus, thePatriarch of Alexandria, to accept theChristologicaldogmas promulgated by theCouncil of Chalcedon onJesus's two natures (divine and human). The Oriental churches accepted that Christ had two natures, but insisted that those two natures are inseparable and united. Dioscorus would accept only "of or from two natures" but not "in two natures." To the hierarchs who would lead the Oriental Orthodox, the Chalcedonian proclamation was tantamount toNestorianism, which they rejected. Arising in the Alexandrian School of Theology,Miaphysitism advocated a formula stressing the unity of the Incarnation over all other considerations.[4]
The Oriental Orthodox churches were therefore often calledmonophysite, although they reject this label, as it is associated withEutychian Monophysitism. They prefer the term "non-Chalcedonian" or "Miaphysite" churches.[5] Oriental Orthodox churches reject what they consider to be the heretical Monophysite teachings ofEutyches and ofNestorius as well as theDyophysite definition of the Council of Chalcedon.[6] As a result, the Oriental patriarchs were excommunicated by the bishops of Rome and Constantinople in 451, formalizing the schism.
Christology, although important, was not the only reason for the Coptic and Syriac rejection of the Council of Chalcedon; political, ecclesiastical and imperial issues were hotly debated during that period.[7]
In 482, Byzantine emperorZeno made an attempt to reconcileChristological differences between the supporters and opponents of theChalcedonian Definition by issuing an imperial decree known as theHenotikon, but those efforts were mainly politically motivated and ultimately proved to be unsuccessful in reaching a true and substantial reconciliation.[8]
In the years following the Henotikon, the patriarch of Constantinople remained in formal communion with the non-Chalcedonian patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, while Rome remained out of communion with them and in unstable communion with Constantinople (see:Acacian schism). It was not until 518 that the new Byzantine Emperor,Justin I (who accepted Chalcedon), demanded that the entire church in the Roman Empire accept the council's decisions. Justin ordered the replacement of all non-Chalcedonian bishops, including the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria.[7]
During the reign of emperorJustinian I (527–565), new attempts were made towards reconciliation, including theSecond Council of Constantinople. One of the most prominent Oriental Orthodox theologians of that era wasSeverus of Antioch. In spite of several, imperially sponsored meetings between heads of Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox communities, no final agreement was reached. The split proved to be final, and by that time parallel ecclesiastical structures were formed throughout the Near East. The most prominent Oriental Orthodox leader in the middle of the 6th century wasJacob Baradaeus, who was considered the theological leader, known from that time as "Jacobite" Christians.[7]
During the 6th and 7th centuries, frequent wars between theByzantine Empire and theSasanian Empire (Persia) throughout the Middle East greatly affected all Christians in the region including the Oriental Orthodox, especially inArmenia,Byzantine Syria andByzantine Egypt. Temporary Persian conquest of all those regions during the greatByzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 resulted in further estrangement between Oriental Orthodox communities of the region and the Byzantine imperial government in Constantinople. Those relations did not improve after the Byzantine reconquest, despite efforts by emperorHeraclius to strengthen political control of the region by achieving religious reunification of divided Christian communities. In order to reach a Christological compromise between Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox, he supportedmonoenergism andmonothelitism, but with no success.[7]
Following theMuslim conquest of the Middle East in the 7th century, a process of gradualIslamization was initiated, affecting all Christians in the region, including the Oriental Orthodox. The Oriental Orthodox communities, mainlySyriac andCoptic, were gradually displaced by Muslims, but a minority endured, preserving their Christian faith and culture.[9]
During the first half of the 16th century, the entire Near East fell under the control of theOttoman Empire. Syria and Egypt were conquered during theOttoman–Mamluk War (1516–17), and Oriental Orthodox communities in the region faced a new political reality that would determine their history until the beginning of the 20th century. Ottoman government introduced themillet system that granted a certain degree of autonomy to non-Islamic religious communities, including Oriental Orthodox Christians.
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One of the most salient features of Oriental Orthodoxy has been the ceaseless persecution and massacres its adherents have suffered throughout history, initially under the Byzantines and Sassanids, and later rule by various successive Muslim dynasties.[10] Anti-Oriental Orthodox sentiments in theByzantine Empire were motivated by religious divisions within Christianity after theCouncil of Chalcedon in 451. Persecutions occurred mainly inEgypt and some other eastern provinces of the Byzantine Empire during the reigns of emperorsMarcian (450–457) andLeo I (457–474).[11] There also was persecution under theAdal Sultanate and theKingdom of Semien.
TheMuslim conquest of Egypt took place in AD 639, during the Byzantine Empire. Despite the political upheaval, Egypt remained a mainly Christian, but Copts lost their majority status after the 14th century,[12] as a result of the intermittent persecution and the destruction of the Christian churches there,[13] accompanied by heavytaxes for those who refused to convert.[14] From theMuslim conquest of Egypt onwards, the Coptic Christians were persecuted by different Muslims regimes,[15] such as theUmayyad Caliphate,[16]Abbasid Caliphate,[17][18][19]Fatimid Caliphate,[20][21][22]Mamluk Sultanate,[23][24] andOttoman Empire; thepersecution of Coptic Christians included closing and demolishing churches andforced conversion toIslam.[25][26][27] Their persecution persists to this day. Christians comprise around 10% of Egypt's population and the overwhelming majority is Oriental Orthodox.[28] Recent significant attacks targeting Coptic Christians include the bombing of two churches during Easter in 2017, which killed 49 people, and the execution of 29 pilgrims traveling to a monastery in May of that same year.[28]
In modern times, persecutions of Oriental Orthodox Christians culminated in Ottoman systematic persecutions ofArmenian Christians andAssyrian Christians that led to theArmenian genocide andAssyrian genocide during the first World War.[29][30]
On April 23, 2015, the Armenian Apostolic Churchcanonized all the victims of the Armenian genocide; this service is believed to be the largest canonization service in history.[31][32][33] Approximately 1.5 million is the most frequently published number of victims, however, estimates vary from 700,000 to 1,800,000. It was the first canonization by the Armenian Apostolic Church in four hundred years.[34]
The Oriental Orthodox communion comprises six groups:Coptic Orthodox,Syriac Orthodox,Ethiopian Orthodox,Eritrean Orthodox,Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, andArmenian Apostolic churches.[35] These six churches, while being in communion with each other are completely independent hierarchically and have no shared patriarch.[36]
By the 20th century the Chalcedonian schism was not seen with the same relevance, and several meetings between Roman Catholicism and Oriental Orthodoxy yielded reconciliation statements signed by the Oriental Patriarch (MarIgnatius Zakka I Iwas) and the Pope (John Paul II) in 1984.
The confusions and schisms that occurred between their Churches in the later centuries, they realize today, in no way affect or touch the substance of their faith, since these arose only because of differences in terminology and culture and in the various formulae adopted by different theological schools to express the same matter. Accordingly, we find today no real basis for the sad divisions and schisms that subsequently arose between us concerning the doctrine of Incarnation. In words and life we confess the true doctrine concerning Christ our Lord, notwithstanding the differences in interpretation of such a doctrine which arose at the time of the Council of Chalcedon.[37]
After the historicalConference of Addis Ababa in 1965, major Oriental Orthodox Churches have developed the practice of mutual theological consultations and joint approach to ecumenical relations with other Christian churches and denominations, particularly withEastern Orthodox Churches and theAnglican Communion. Renewed discussions between Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox theologians were mainly focused onchristological questions regarding various differences betweenmonophysitism andmiaphysitism.[38][39] On the other hand, dialogue between Oriental Orthodox and Anglican theologians was also focused on some additionalpneumatological questions. In 2001, the joint "Anglican-Oriental Orthodox International Commission" was created.[40] In the following years, the Commission produced several important theological statements. Finally in 2017, Oriental Orthodox and Anglican theologians met inDublin and signed an agreement on various theological questions regarding the Holy Spirit. The statement of agreement has confirmed the Anglican readiness to omit theFilioque interpolation from theCreed.[41]
ʿUmar is depicted as having ordered that "the poll-tax should be taken from all men who would not become Muslims"
Al Hakim Bi-Amr Allah (r. 996—1021), however, who became the greatest persecutor of Copts.... within the church that also appears to coincide with a period of forced rapid conversion to Islam
By late 1012 the persecution had moved into high gear with demolitions of churches and the forced conversion of Christian ...
