Thehistory of New York begins around 10,000 B.C. when the first people arrived. By 1100 A.D. two main cultures had become dominant as theIroquoian andAlgonquian developed. European discovery of New York was led byGiovanni da Verrazzano in 1524 followed by the first land claim in 1609 by theDutch. As part ofNew Netherland, the colony was important in thefur trade and eventually became anagricultural resource thanks to thepatroon system. In 1626, the Dutch thought they had bought the island of Manhattan from Native Americans.[1] In 1664,England renamed the colony New York, after theDuke of York and Albany, brother ofKing Charles II.New York City gained prominence in the 18th century as a major trading port in theThirteen Colonies.
New York played a pivotal role during theAmerican Revolution and subsequentwar. TheStamp Act Congress in 1765 brought together representatives from across the Thirteen Colonies to form a unified response to British policies. TheSons of Liberty were active in New York City to challenge British authority. After a major loss at theBattle of Long Island, theContinental Army suffered a series of additional defeats that forced a retreat from the New York City area, leaving the strategic port and harbor to the British army and navy as their North American base of operations for the rest of the war. TheBattle of Saratoga was the turning point of the war in favor of the Americans, convincing France to formally ally with them.New York's constitution was adopted in 1777, and strongly influenced theUnited States Constitution. New York City was the national capital at various times between 1788 and 1790, where theBill of Rights was drafted.Albany became the permanentstate capital in 1797. In 1787, New York became the eleventh state to ratify theUnited States Constitution.
New York hosted significant transportation advancements in the 19th century, including the firststeamboat line in 1807, theErie Canal in 1825, and America'sfirst regularly scheduled rail service in 1831. These advancements led to the expanded settlement of western New York and trade ties to the Midwest settlements around the Great Lakes.
Due to New York City's trade ties to the South, there were numerous southern sympathizers in the early days of theAmerican Civil War and the mayor proposed secession. Far from any of the battles, New York ultimately sent the most soldiers and money to support the Union cause. Thereafter, the state helped create theindustrial age and consequently was home to some of the firstlabor unions.
During the 19th century, New York City became the main entry point for European immigrants to the United States, beginning with a wave of Irish during theirGreat Famine. Millions came throughCastle Clinton inBattery Park beforeEllis Island opened in 1892 to welcome millions more, increasingly from eastern and southern Europe. TheStatue of Liberty opened in 1886 and became a symbol of hope. New York boomed during theRoaring Twenties, before theWall Street Crash of 1929, and skyscrapers expressed the energy of the city. New York City was the site ofsuccessive tallest buildings in the world from 1913 to 1974.
The buildup of defense industries forWorld War II turned around the state's economy from theGreat Depression, as hundreds of thousands worked to defeat the Axis powers. Following the war, the state experienced significantsuburbanization around all the major cities, and most central cities shrank. TheThruway system opened in 1956, signaling another era of transportation advances.
Following a period of near-bankruptcy in the late 1970s, New York City renewed its stature as a cultural center, attracted more immigration, and hosted the development of new music styles. The city developed from publishing to become a media capital over the second half of the 20th century, hosting most national news channels and broadcasts. Some of its newspapers became nationally and globally renowned. The state's manufacturing base eroded with the restructuring of industry, and the state transitioned intoservice industries.
The first peoples of New York are estimated to have arrived around 10,000 BC. Around AD 800,Iroquois ancestors moved into the area from theAppalachian region. The people of thePoint Peninsula complex were the predecessors of theAlgonquian peoples of New York.[2] By around 1100, the distinct Iroquoian-speaking and Algonquian-speaking cultures that would eventually be encountered by Europeans had developed.[3] The five nations of the Iroquois League developed a powerful confederacy about the 15th century that controlled territory throughout present-day New York, into Pennsylvania around the Great Lakes. For centuries, the Mohawk cultivated maize fields in the lowlands of theMohawk River,[4] which were later taken over by Dutch settlers atSchenectady, New York when they bought this territory. The Iroquois nations to the west also had well-cultivated areas and orchards.
The Iroquois established dominance over thefur trade throughout their territory, bargaining with European colonists. Other New York tribes were more subject to either European destruction or assimilation within theIroquoian confederacy.[5] Situated at major Native trade routes in the Northeast and positioned between French and English zones of settlement, the Iroquois were intensely caught up with the onrush of Europeans, which is also to say that the settlers, whether Dutch, French or English, were caught up with the Iroquois as well.[6] Algonquian tribes were less united among their tribes; they typically lived along rivers, streams, or theAtlantic Coast.[7] But, both groups of natives were well-established peoples with highly sophisticated cultural systems; these were little understood or appreciated by the European colonists who encountered them. The natives had "a complex and elaborate native economy that included hunting, gathering, manufacturing, and farming...[and were] a mosaic of Native American tribes, nations, languages, and political associations."[3] The Iroquois usually met at anOnondaga in Northern New York, which changed every century or so, where they would coordinate policies on how to deal with Europeans and strengthen the bond between the Five Nations.
Tribes who have managed to call New York home have been the Iroquois, Mohawk,Mohican,Susquehannock,Petun,Chonnonton, Ontario[8] andNanticoke.[9]
In 1524,Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian explorer in the service of the French crown, explored the Atlantic coast of North America between the Carolinas and Newfoundland, including New York Harbor andNarragansett Bay. On April 17, 1524, Verrazzano entered New York Bay, by way of the Strait now calledthe Narrows. He described "a vast coastline with a deep delta in which every kind of ship could pass" and he adds: "that it extends inland for a league and opens up to form a beautiful lake. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats". He landed on the tip of Manhattan and perhaps on the furthest point of Long Island.[10]
In 1535,Jacques Cartier, a French explorer, became the first European to describe and map theSaint Lawrence River from the Atlantic Ocean, sailing as far upriver as the site of Montreal.[11]
On April 4, 1609,Henry Hudson, in the employ of theDutch East India Company, departed Amsterdam in command of the shipHalve Maen (Half Moon). On September 3 he reached the estuary of the Hudson River.[12] He sailed up the Hudson River to about Albany near the confluence of theMohawk River and the Hudson. His voyage was used to establish Dutch claims to the region and to the fur trade that prospered there after a trading post was established at Albany in 1614.
In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Christiaensen, builtFort Nassau (now Albany) the first Dutch settlement in North America and the first European settlement in what would become New York.[13] It was replaced by nearbyFort Orange in 1624.[14] In 1625,Fort Amsterdam was built on the southern tip of Manhattan Island to defend theHudson River.[15] This settlement grew to become the cityNew Amsterdam.
The British conquered New Netherland in 1664;[Note 1] Lenient terms of surrender most likely kept local resistance to a minimum. Thecolony andNew Amsterdam were both renamedNew York (and "Beverwijck" was renamed Albany) after its new proprietor,James II later King of England, Ireland and Scotland, who was at the timeDuke of York andDuke of Albany[Note 2]. The population of New Netherland at the time of English takeover was 7,000–8,000.[2][18]
Thousands of poor German farmers, chiefly from the Palatine region of Germany, migrated to upstate districts after 1700. They kept to themselves, married their own, spoke German, attended Lutheran churches, and retained their own customs and foods. They emphasized farm ownership. Some mastered English to become conversant with local legal and business opportunities. They ignored the Indians and tolerated slavery (although few were rich enough to own a slave).[19]
Largemanors were developed along the Hudson River by elite colonists during the 18th century, includingLivingston,Cortlandt,Philipsburg, and Rensselaerswyck.[Note 3] The manors represented more than half of the colony's undeveloped land. The Province of New York thrived during this time, its economy strengthened byLong Island andHudson Valley agriculture, in conjunction with trade and artisanal activity at thePort of New York; the colony was abreadbasket andlumberyard for theBritish sugar colonies in theCaribbean. New York's population grew substantially during this century: from the first colonial census (1698) to the last (1771), the province grew ninefold, from 18,067 to 168,007.
New York played a pivotal role in theRevolutionary War. The colony verged on revolt following theStamp Act of 1765, advancing the New York City–basedSons of Liberty to the forefront of New York politics. The Act exacerbated the depression the province experienced after unsuccessfully invading Canada in 1760.[21] Even though New York City merchants lost out on lucrative military contracts, the group sought common ground between the King and the people; however, compromise became impossible as of April 1775Battles of Lexington and Concord. In that aftermath theNew York Provincial Congress on June 9, 1775, for five pounds sterling for each hundredweight of gunpowder delivered to each county's committee.[22]
Two powerful families had for decades assembled colony-wide coalitions of supporters. With few exceptions, members long associated with the DeLancey faction went along when its leadership decided to support the crown, while members of the Livingston faction became Patriots.[23][24]
New York's strategic central location and port made it key to controlling the colonies. The British assembled the century's largest fleet: at one point 30,000British sailors and soldiers anchored offStaten Island. GeneralGeorge Washington barely escaped New York City with his army in November 1776; GeneralSir William Howe was successful indriving Washington out, but erred by expanding intoNew Jersey. By January 1777, he retained only a few outposts near New York City. The British held the city for the duration, using it as a base for expeditions against other targets.
In October 1777, American GeneralHoratio Gates won theBattle of Saratoga, later regarded as the war's turning point. Had Gates not held, the rebellion might well have broken down: losing Saratoga would have cost the entire Hudson–Champlain corridor, which would have separated New England from the rest of the colonies and split the future union.[25]
Upon war's end, New York's borders became well–defined: the counties east ofLake Champlain becameVermont and the state's western borders were settled by 1786.
Many Iroquois supported the British (typically fearing future American ambitions). Many were killed during the war; others went into exile with the British. Those remaining lived on twelvereservations; by 1826 only eight reservations remained, all of which survived into the 21st century.
The state adoptedits constitution in April 1777, creating a strong executive and strictseparation of powers. It strongly influenced the federal constitution a decade later. Debate over the federal constitution in 1787 led to formation of the groups known asFederalists—mainly "downstaters" (those who lived in or near New York City) who supported a strong national government—andAnti-Federalists—mainly upstaters (those who lived to the city's north and west) who opposed large national institutions. In 1787,Alexander Hamilton, a leading Federalist from New York and signatory to the Constitution, wrote the first essay of theFederalist Papers. He published and wrote most of the series in New York City newspapers in support of the proposedUnited States Constitution. Antifederalists were not swayed by the arguments, but the state ratified it in 1788.[26]
In 1785, New York City became the national capital and continued as such on and off until 1790; George Washington wasinaugurated as the firstPresident of the United States in front ofFederal Hall in 1789.[26] TheUnited States Bill of Rights was drafted there, and theUnited States Supreme Court sat for the first time. Fromstatehood to 1797, theLegislature frequently moved the state capital between Albany,Kingston,Poughkeepsie, and New York City. Thereafter, Albany retained that role.[27]
In the early 19th century, New York became a center for advancement in transportation. In 1807,Robert Fulton initiated asteamboat line from New York to Albany, the first successful enterprise of its kind.[28] By 1815, Albany was the state'sturnpike center,[29] which established the city as the hub for pioneers migrating west toBuffalo and theMichigan Territory.[30]
In 1825 theErie Canal opened, securing the state's economic dominance. Its impact was enormous: one source stated, "Linking the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes, the canal was an act of political will that joined the regions of the state, created a vast economichinterland for New York City, and established a ready market for agricultural products from the state's interior." In that year western New York transitioned from "frontier" to settled area. By this time, all counties and most municipalities had incorporated, approximately matching the state's is organized today.[26] In 1831, theMohawk and Hudson Railroad started the country's first successful regularly–scheduled steam railroad service.[31]
Advancing transportation quickly led to settlement of the fertileMohawk andGenessee valleys and theNiagara Frontier. Buffalo andRochester becameboomtowns. Significant migration ofNew England "Yankees" (mainly of English descent) to the central and western parts of the state led to minor conflicts with the more settled "Yorkers" (mainly of German, Dutch, and Scottish descent). More than 15% of the state's 1850 population had been born in New England[citation needed]. The western part of the state grew fastest at this time. By 1840, New York was home to seven of the nation's thirty largest cities.[Note 4]
During this period, towns established academies for education, including for girls. The western area of the state was a center of progressive causes, including support ofabolitionism, temperance, and women's rights. Religious enthusiasms flourished and theLatter Day Saint movement was founded in the area byJoseph Smith and his vision. Some supporters of abolition participated in theUnderground Railroad, helping fugitive slaves reach freedom in Canada or in New York.
In addition, in the early 1840s the state legislature and GovernorWilliam H. Seward expanded rights for free blacks and fugitive slaves in New York: in 1840 the legislature passed laws protecting the rights of African Americans against Southern slave-catchers.[33] One guaranteed alleged fugitive slaves the right of a jury trial in New York to establish whether they were slaves, and another pledged the aid of the state to recover free blacks kidnapped into slavery,[34] (as happened toSolomon Northup of Saratoga Springs in 1841, who did not regain freedom until 1853.) In 1841 Seward signed legislation to repeal a "nine-month law" that allowed slaveholders to bring their slaves into the state for a period of nine months before they were considered free. After this, slaves brought to the state were immediately considered freed, as was the case in some other free states. Seward also signed legislation to establish public education for all children, leaving it up to local jurisdictions as to how that would be supplied (some had segregated schools).[35]
New York culture bloomed in the first half of the 19th century: in 1809Washington Irving wrote the satiricalA History of New York under the pen name Diedrich Knickerbocker, and in 1819 he basedRip Van Winkle andThe Legend of Sleepy Hollow in Hudson Valley towns.[36]Thomas Cole'sHudson River School was established in the 1830s by showcasing dramatic landscapes of the Hudson Valley.[37] The firstbaseball teams formed in New York City in the 1840s, including theNew York Knickerbockers. Professional baseball later located itsHall of Fame inCooperstown.Saratoga Race Course, an annual summer attraction inSaratoga Springs, opened in 1847.[38]
Acivil war was not in the best interest of business, because New York had strong ties to the Deep South, both through the port of New York and manufacture of cotton goods in upstate textile mills. Half of New York City's exports were related to cotton before the war. Southern businessmen so frequently traveled to the city that they established favorite hotels and restaurants. Trade was based on movingSouthern goods. The city's largeDemocrat community feared the impact ofAbraham Lincoln'selection in 1860 and the mayor urged secession of New York.
By the time of the 1861Battle of Fort Sumter, such political differences decreased and the state quickly met Lincoln's request for soldiers and supplies. More soldiers fought from New York than any otherNorthern state. While no battles were waged in New York, the state was not immune toConfederate conspiracies, including one to burn various New York cities and another to invade the state via Canada.[39]
In January 1863, Lincoln issued theEmancipation Proclamation, which freed the slaves in states that were still in rebellion against the union. In March 1863, the federal draft law was changed so that male citizens between 20 and 35 and unmarried citizens to age 45 were subject to conscription. Those who could afford to hire a substitute or pay $300 were exempt. Antiwar newspaper editors attacked the law, and many immigrants and their descendants resented being drafted in place of people who could buy their way out. Democratic Party leaders raised the specter of a deluge of freed southern blacks competing with the white working class, then dominated by ethnic Irish and immigrants. On the lottery's first day, July 11, 1863, the first lottery draw was held. On Monday, July 13, 1863, five days of large-scaleriots began, which were dominated by ethnic Irish, who targeted blacks in the city, their neighborhoods, and known abolitionist sympathizers.[40] As a result, many blacks left Manhattan permanently, moving to Brooklyn or other areas.
In the following decades, New York strengthened its dominance of thefinancial and banking industries. Manufacturing continued to rise:Eastman Kodak founded in 1888 inRochester,General Electric inSchenectady, andEndicott-Johnson Shoe Company in theTriple Cities are some of the well-known companies founded during this period. Buffalo andNiagara Falls attracted numerous factories following the advent ofhydroelectric power in the area.[41] With industry blooming,workers began to unite in New York as early as the 1820s. By 1882, theKnights of Labor in New York City had 60,000 members.Trade unions used political influence to limit working hours as early as 1867. At the same time, New York's agricultural output peaked. Focus changed fromcrop-based todairy-based agriculture. The cheese industry became established in the Mohawk Valley. By 1881, the state had more than 241,000 farms.[41] In the same period, the area aroundNew York Harbor became the world'soyster capital, retaining that title into the early twentieth century.[42]
Immigration increased throughout the latter half of the 19th century. Starting with refugees from theGreat Famine of Ireland in the 1840s, New York became a prominent entry point for those seeking a new life in the United States.[41] Between 1855 and 1890, an estimated 8 million immigrants passed throughCastle Clinton atBattery Park in Manhattan.[43][Note 5] Early in this period, most immigrants came from Ireland and Germany.Ellis Island opened in 1892,[43] and between 1880 and 1920, most immigrants were German and Eastern European Jews, Poles, and other Eastern and Southern Europeans, including many Italians. By 1925, New York City's population outnumbered that ofLondon, making it the most populous city in the world.[41] Arguably New York's most identifiable symbol,Liberty Enlightening the World (the Statue of Liberty), a gift fromFrance for theAmerican centennial, was completed in 1886. By the early 20th century, the statue, designed by sculptorFrédéric Auguste Bartholdi, was regarded as the "Mother of Exiles"—a symbol of hope to immigrants.[45]
New York's political pattern changed little after the mid–19th century. New York City and its metropolitan area was already heavily Democrat; Upstate was aligned with the Republican Party and was a center of abolitionist activists. In the 1850s, DemocraticTammany Hall became one of the most powerful and durablepolitical machines in United States history.Boss William Tweed brought the organization to the forefront of city and then state politics in the 1860s. Based on its command of a large population, Tammany maintained influence until at least the 1930s. Outside the city, Republicans were able to influence theredistricting process enough to constrain New York City and capture control of the Legislature in 1894. Both parties have seen national political success: in the 39presidential elections between 1856 and 2010, Republicans won 19 times and Democrats 20 times.[41]
By 1901, New York was the richest and most populous state. Two years prior, thefive boroughs of New York Citybecame one city.[46] Within decades, the city's emblem had become theskyscraper: theWoolworth Building was thetallest building in the world from 1913, surpassed by40 Wall Street in April 1930, theChrysler Building in 1930, theEmpire State Building in 1931, and theWorld Trade Center in 1972 before losing the title in 1974.[47]
The state was serviced by over a dozen major railroads and at the start of the 20th century and electricInterurban rail networks began to spring up around Syracuse, Rochester and other cities in New York during this period.[48][49]
In the late 1890s governorTheodore Roosevelt and fellow Republicans such asCharles Evans Hughes worked with many Democrats such asAl Smith to promoteProgressivism.[50] They battled trusts and monopolies (especially in the insurance industry), promoted efficiency, fought waste, and called for more democracy in politics. Democrats focused more on the benefits of progressivism for their own ethnic working class base and for labor unions.[51][52]
Democratic political machines, especiallyTammany Hall in Manhattan, opposed woman suffrage because they feared that the addition of female voters would dilute the control they had established over groups of male voters. By the time of the New York State referendum on women's suffrage in 1917, however, some wives and daughters of Tammany Hall leaders were working for suffrage, leading it to take a neutral position that was crucial to the referendum's passage.[53][54]
Following a sharp but short-lived Depression at the beginning of the decade,[55] New York enjoyed a booming economy during theRoaring Twenties. New York suffered during theGreat Depression, which began with theWall Street crash on Black Tuesday in 1929. TheSecurities and Exchange Commission opened in 1934 to regulate the stock market.[56]Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected governor in 1928, and the state faced upwards of 25% unemployment. His Temporary Emergency Relief Agency, established in 1931, was the firstwork relief program in the nation and influenced the nationalFederal Emergency Relief Administration. Roosevelt was electedPresident in 1932 in part because of his promises to extend New York–style relief programs across the country via hisNew Deal.[46][57] In 1932,Lake Placid was host to theIII Olympic Winter Games.[18]
As the largest state, New York again supplied the most resources duringWorld War II. New York manufactured 11 percent of total United States military armaments produced during the war[58] and suffered 31,215 casualties.[59] The war affected the state both socially and economically. For example, to overcome discriminatory labor practices, GovernorHerbert H. Lehman created the Committee on Discrimination in Employment in 1941 and GovernorThomas E. Dewey signed theIves-Quinn Act in 1945, banning employment discrimination. TheG.I. Bill of 1944, which offered returning soldiers the opportunity of affordable higher education, forced New York to create apublic university system since itsprivate universities could not handle the influx; theState University of New York was created by Governor Dewey in 1948.[60]
World War II constituted New York's last great industrial era. At its conclusion, the defense industry shrank and the economy shifted towards producing services rather than goods. Returning soldiers disproportionately displaced female and minority workers who had entered the industrial workforce only when the war left employers no other choice.[60] Companies moved to the south and west, seeking lower taxes and a less costly, non–union workforce. Many workers followed the jobs.[61]Themiddle class expanded and createdsuburbs such as the one on Long Island. Theautomobile accelerated this decentralization;planned communities likeLevittown offered affordable middle-class housing.[61]
Larger cities stopped growing around 1950. Growth resumed only in New York City, in the 1980s. Buffalo's population fell by half between 1950 and 2000. Reduced immigration and worker migration led New York State's population to decline for the first time between 1970 and 1980.California andTexas both surpassed it in population.[citation needed]
New York entered its third era of massive transportation projects by buildinghighways, notably theNew York State Thruway. The project was unpopular with New York City Democrats, who referred to it as "Dewey's ditch" and the "enemy of schools", because the Thruway disproportionately benefited upstate. The highway was based on theGerman Autobahn and was unlike anything seen at that point in the United States. It was within 30 miles (50 km) of 90% of the population at its conception. Costing $600 million, the full 427-mile (687 km) project opened in 1956.[62]
Nelson Rockefeller was governor from 1959 to 1973 and changed New York politics. He began as a liberal, but grew more conservative: he limitedSUNY's growth, responded aggressively to theAttica Prison riot, and promulgated the uniquely severeRockefeller Drug Laws. The World Trade Center and other profligate projects nearly drove New York City intobankruptcy in 1975. The state took substantial budgetary control, which eventually led to improved fiscal prudence.[61]
TheExecutive Mansion was retaken by Democrats in 1974 and remained under Democratic control for 20 years underHugh Carey andMario Cuomo. Late–century Democrats became more centrist, includingUS SenatorDaniel Patrick Moynihan (1977–2001) andNew York City MayorEd Koch (1978–1989), while state Republicans began to align themselves with the more conservative national party. They gained power through the elections of SenatorAlfonse D'Amato in 1980, MayorRudolph Giuliani in 1993, and GovernorGeorge Pataki in 1994. New York remained one of the most liberal states. In 1984,Ronald Reagan was the last Republican to carry the state, although RepublicanMichael Bloomberg served as New York City mayor in the early 21st century.[61]
In the late 20th century,telecommunication andhigh technology industries employed many New Yorkers. New York City was especially successful at this transition.Entrepreneurs created many small companies, as industrial firms such asPolaroid withered. This success drew manyyoung professionals into the still–dwindling cities. New York City was the exception and has continued to draw new residents. The energy of the city created attractions and new businesses. Some people believe that changes inpolicing created a less threatening environment;crime rates dropped, andurban development reducedurban decay.[61]
This in turn led to a surge in culture. New York City became, once again, "the center for all things chic and trendy".[61]Hip-hop andrap music, led by New York City, became the most popular popgenre. Immigration to both the city and state rose. New York City, with a largegay and lesbian community, suffered many deaths fromAIDS beginning in the 1980s.[61]
New York City increased its already large share oftelevision programming, home to thenetwork news broadcasts, as well as two of the three majorcable news networks.[citation needed] TheWall Street Journal andThe New York Times became two of the three "national" newspapers, read throughout the country.[citation needed] New York also increased its dominance of thefinancial services industry centered onWall Street, led by banking expansion, a risingstock market, innovations ininvestment banking, includingjunk bond trading and accelerated by thesavings and loan crisis that decimated competitors elsewhere in New York.
Upstate did not fare as well as downstate; the major industries that began to reinvigorate New York City did not typically spread to other regions. The number of farms in the state had fallen to 30,000 by 1997. City populations continued to decline while suburbs grew in area, but did not increase proportionately in population.[61] High-tech industry grew in cities such asCorning and Rochester. Overall New York entered thenew millennium "in a position of economic strength and optimism".[18]
In 2001, New York entered a new era following the9/11 attacks,[61] the worst terrorist attack ever to take place on American soil. Two of the four hijacked passenger jets crashed into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center, destroying them, and killing almost 3,000 people. One flew into the Pentagon demolishing the walls. The final one was almost taken back over by the passengers aboard and crashed into an open grassland with 296 out of the 500 people dead.[63] Thousands of New Yorkers volunteered their time to search the ruin for survivors and remains in the following weeks.
Following the attacks, plans were announced to rebuild the World Trade Center site.7 World Trade Center became the first World Trade Center skyscraper to be rebuilt in five years after the attacks.One World Trade Center, four more office towers, and amemorial to the casualties of the September 11 attacks are under construction as of 2011.One World Trade Center opened on November 3, 2014.[64]
On October 29 and 30, 2012,Hurricane Sandy caused extensive destruction of the state's shorelines, ravaging portions of New York City,Long Island, and southern Westchester with record-highstorm surge, with severe flooding and high winds causingpower outages for hundreds of thousands of New Yorkers, and leading togasoline shortages and disruption ofmass transit systems. The storm and its profound effects have prompted the discussion of constructingseawalls and othercoastal barriers around the shorelines of New York City and Long Island to minimize the risk from another such future event. Such risk is considered highly probable due toglobal warming andrising sea levels.[65][66]
fort nassau albany.
