Malaysia is a modern concept, created in the second half of the 20th century. However, contemporary Malaysia regards the entire history ofMalaya andBorneo, spanning thousands of years back toprehistoric times, as its own history.[1][2][3] Significant events in Malaysia's modern history include the formation of the federation, the separation ofSingapore, the racial riots,Mahathir Mohamad's era of industrialisation and privatisation, and the nation's political upheavals of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.[4][5]
The first evidence ofarchaic human occupation in the region dates back at least 1.83 million years, while the earliest remnants ofanatomically modern humans are approximately 40,000 years old. The ancestors of the present-day population of Malaysia entered the area in multiple waves during prehistoric and historical times.[6][7]
Hinduism andBuddhism fromIndia andChina dominated early regional history, reaching their peak from the 7th to the 13th centuries during the reign of theSumatra-basedSrivijaya civilisation.Islam made its initial presence in theMalay Peninsula as early as the 10th century, but it was during the 15th century that the religion firmly took root, at least among the court elites, leading to the rise of several sultanates, the most prominent being theSultanate of Malacca and theSultanate of Brunei.[8]
ThePortuguese were the first European colonial power to establish themselves on the Malay Peninsula and in Southeast Asia,capturing Malacca in 1511. This event led to the establishment of several sultanates, such asJohor andPerak.Dutch hegemony over theMalay sultanates increased during the 17th to 18th centuries, with the Dutchcapturing Malacca in 1641 with the aid ofJohor. In the 19th century, theEnglish ultimately gained hegemony across the territory that is now Malaysia. TheAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 defined the boundaries betweenBritish Malaya and theDutch East Indies (which becameIndonesia), and theAnglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 defined the boundaries between British Malaya and Siam (which becameThailand). The fourth phase of foreign influence was marked by a wave of immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to meet the needs created by the colonial economy in the Malay Peninsula and Borneo.[9]
TheJapanese invasion duringWorld War II ended British rule in Malaya. After theJapanese Empire was defeated by theAllies, theMalayan Union was established in 1946 and reorganized as theFederation of Malaya in 1948. In the peninsula, theMalayan Communist Party (MCP) took up arms against the British, leading to the declaration ofemergency rule from 1948 to 1960. A forceful military response to the communist insurgency, followed by theBaling Talks in 1955, led toMalayan independence on August 31, 1957, through diplomatic negotiation with the British.[10][11] On 16 September 1963, theFederation of Malaysia was formed, but in August 1965,Singapore was expelled from the federation and became aseparate independent country.[12][13] Aracial riot in 1969 resulted in the imposition of emergency rule, the suspension of parliament, and the proclamation of theRukun Negara, a national philosophy promoting unity among citizens.[14][15] TheNew Economic Policy (NEP), adopted in 1971, sought to eradicate poverty and restructure society to eliminate the identification of race with economic function.[16]
Under Prime MinisterMahathir Mohamad, Malaysia experienced rapideconomic growth andurbanization beginning in the 1980s.[17] TheNational Development Policy (NDP), succeeding the previous economic policy, was implemented from 1991 to 2000.[18] The1997 Asian financial crisis nearly caused the country's currency, stock, and property markets to collapse, though they subsequently recovered.[19] The1MDB scandal came to prominence in 2015 as a significant global corruption scandal, implicating then-Prime MinisterNajib Razak.[20] The scandal significantly influenced the2018 general election, resulting in the first change of ruling political party since independence.[21] In early 2020, Malaysia faced apolitical crisis,[22] concurrent with theCOVID-19 pandemic, leading to political, health, social, and economic disruptions.[23][24] The2022 general election resulted in Malaysia's first hung parliament, leading toAnwar Ibrahim's appointment as Prime Minister on November 24, 2022.[25][26][27][28]
Stone hand axes from early hominids, probablyHomo erectus, have been unearthed inLenggong. These axes date back 1.83 million years, making them some of the oldest evidence ofhominid habitation in Southeast Asia.[29]
The earliest evidence of modern human habitation in Malaysia is a 40,000-year-old skull excavated from theNiah Caves in present-day Sarawak.[30][31][32] This skull is also one of the oldest modern human remains found in Southeast Asia. The first foragers visited the West Mouth of the Niah Caves, located 110 kilometers (68 miles) southwest of Miri, 40,000 years ago whenBorneo was connected to the mainland of Southeast Asia.[33]Mesolithic andNeolithic burial sites have also been discovered in the area.[34] The region around the Niah Caves has been designated asNiah National Park.[34]
A study of Asian genetics suggests that the original humans in East Asia came from Southeast Asia.[38] The oldest complete skeleton found in Malaysia is the 11,000-year-oldPerak Man, unearthed in 1991.[39] Indigenous groups on the peninsula (known as theOrang Asli) can be divided into three ethnicities: theNegritos, theSenoi, and theProto-Malays.[40] The first inhabitants of the Malay Peninsula were most likely Negritos.[41] TheseMesolithic hunters were probably the ancestors of theSemang, an ethnic Negrito group.[42] The Semang populations on the coast died out in the 20th century but there are still groups living in the interior of the Peninsula.[43]
TheSenoi appear to be a composite group, with approximately half of their maternalmitochondrial DNA lineages tracing back to the ancestors of the Semang and about half to later ancestral migrations fromIndochina. Scholars suggest they are descendants of earlyAustroasiatic-speaking agriculturalists, who brought both their language and technology to the southern part of the peninsula approximately 4,000 years ago. They eventually united and coalesced with the indigenous population.[44]
TheProto-Malays have a more diverse origin and had settled in Malaysia by 1000 BC as a result ofAustronesian expansion.[45][46] Although they show some connections with other inhabitants ofMaritime Southeast Asia, some also have ancestry in Indochina around the time of theLast Glacial Maximum, about 20,000 years ago. Areas comprising what is now Malaysia participated in theMaritime Jade Road, a trading network that existed for 3,000 years, between 2000 BC and 1000 AD.[47][48][49][50]
Anthropologists support the notion that the Proto-Malays originated from what is todayYunnan, China.[51] This was followed by an early-Holocene dispersal through the Malay Peninsula into theMalay Archipelago.[52] Around 300 BC, they were pushed inland by theDeutero-Malays, anIron Age orBronze Age people descended partly from theChams ofCambodia andVietnam. The Deutero-Malays, the first group in the peninsula to use metal tools, were direct ancestors of modernMalaysian Malays and introduced advanced farming techniques.[42] The Malays remained politically fragmented throughout the Malay Archipelago, although they shared a common culture and social structure.[53]
In the first millennium AD, the Malay became the dominant ethnicity on the peninsula. The small early states that were established were greatly influenced by Indian culture, as was most of Southeast Asia.[55]Indian influence in the region dates back to at least the 3rd century BC. South Indian culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the South IndianPallava dynasty in the 4th and 5th centuries.[56]
In ancient Indian literature, the termSuvarnadvipa (Golden Peninsula) is used in theRamayana; some argue that this is a reference to the Malay Peninsula. The ancient Indian textVayu Purana also mentions a place namedMalayadvipa; this term may refer to Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula.[57] The Malay Peninsula was shown onPtolemy'smap as theGolden Chersonese.[58]
Trade relations with China and India were established in the 1st century BC.[59] Shards of Chinese pottery have been found inBorneo dating from the 1st century following thesouthward expansion of the Han dynasty.[60] In the early centuries of the first millennium, the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the Indian religions ofHinduism andBuddhism, which had a major effect on the language and culture of those living in Malaysia.[61] TheSanskrit writing system was used as early as the 4th century.[62]
There were as many as 30 Malay kingdoms in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, mainly based on the eastern side of the Malay Peninsula.[55] Among the earliest kingdoms known to have been based in the Malay Peninsula was the ancient kingdom ofLangkasuka, located in the northern Malay Peninsula and based somewhere on the east coast.[55][63] It was closely tied toFunan in Cambodia, which also ruled parts of northern Malaysia until the 6th century. In the 5th century, theKingdom of Pahang was mentioned in theBook of Song. Besides this,Chi Tu andPan Pan were old polities believed to be located in the northeast of the peninsula.
Gangga Negara was a semi-legendary Hindu kingdom mentioned in theMalay Annals that covered present-dayBeruas,Dinding andManjung in the state ofPerak, Malaysia with Raja Gangga Shah Johan as one of its kings.[64] According to the legendaryHikayat Merong Mahawangsa, Gangga Negara was founded byMerong Mahawangsa's son Raja Ganji Sarjuna of Kedah, allegedly a descendant ofAlexander the Great or by theKhmer royalty no later than the 2nd century.[citation needed]
Ptolemy, a Greek geographer, had written about theGolden Chersonese, which indicated that trade with India and China had existed since the 1st century AD.[65] During this time, coastal city-states that existed had a trade network which encompassed the southern part of the Indochinese Peninsula and the western part of the Malay Archipelago. These coastal cities had ongoing trade as well as tributary relations with China, at the same time being in constant contact with Indian traders. They seem to have shared a common indigenous culture.[citation needed]
Gradually, the rulers of the western part of the archipelago adopted Indian cultural and political models. Three inscriptions found inPalembang (South Sumatra) and onBangka Island, written in the form of Malay and in alphabets derived from thePallava script, are proof that the archipelago had adopted Indian models while maintaining their indigenous language and social system. These inscriptions reveal the existence of aDapunta Hyang (lord) ofSrivijaya who led an expedition against his enemies and who curses those who does not obey his law.[citation needed]
Being on the maritime trade route between China andSouth India, the Malay Peninsula was involved in this trade. TheBujang Valley, being strategically located at the northwest entrance of theStrait of Malacca as well as facing theBay of Bengal, was continuously frequented by Chinese and south Indian traders. Such was proven by the discovery of trade ceramics, sculptures, inscriptions and monuments dated from the 5th to 14th century.[citation needed]
Between the 7th and the 13th century, much of theMalay Peninsula was under the influence ofSrivijaya. The site Prasasti Hujung Langit, which sat at the centre of Srivijaya's empire, is thought to be at ariver mouth in easternSumatra, based near what is nowPalembang,Indonesia.[66] In the 7th century, a new port calledShilifoshi is mentioned, believed to be a Chinese rendering ofSrivijaya. For over six centuries theMaharajahs of Srivijaya ruled a maritime empire that became the main power in the archipelago. The empire was based around trade, with local kings (dhatus or community leaders) that swore allegiance to a lord for mutual profit.[67] In 1025, theChola dynasty captured Palembang, the king, all his family members and his courtiers had their wealth taken away; by the end of the 12th century Srivijaya had been reduced to a kingdom, with their last ruler, Queen Sekerummong being conquered and overthrown in 1288.Majapahit, a subordinate to Srivijaya, soon dominated the region's political scene.[68]
The relation between Srivijaya and theChola Empire of south India was friendly during the reign ofRaja Raja Chola I but during the reign ofRajendra Chola I the Chola Empireinvaded Srivijaya cities (seeChola invasion of Srivijaya).[69] In 1025 and 1026, Gangga Negara was attacked by Rajendra Chola I of theChola Empire, theTamil emperor who is now thought to have laidKota Gelanggi to waste. Kedah (known asKadaram in Tamil) was invaded by theCholas in 1025. A second invasion was led byVirarajendra Chola of theChola dynasty who conquered Kedah in the late 11th century.[70] The senior Chola's successor, Vira Rajendra Chola, had to put down a Kedah rebellion to overthrow other invaders. The coming of the Chola reduced the majesty ofSrivijaya, which had exerted influence overKedah,Pattani and as far asLigor. During the reign ofKulothunga Chola I, Chola overlordship was established over the Srivijaya provinceKedah in the late 11th century.[71] The expedition of theChola Emperors had such a great impression on theMalay people of the medieval period that their name was mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melaya.[72][73][74] Even today, the Chola rule is remembered inMalaysia as many Malaysian princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such was the Raja ofPerak calledRaja Chulan.[75][76]
Pattinapalai, a Tamil poem of the 2nd century AD, describes goods fromKedaram heaped in the broad streets of the Chola capital. The Buddhistkingdom of Ligor took control of Kedah shortly after. Its kingChandrabhanu used it as a base to attackSri Lanka in the 11th century and ruled the northern parts, an event noted in a stone inscription in Nagapattinum inTamil Nadu and the Sri Lankan chronicles,Mahavamsa.[citation needed]
At times, theKhmer Empire, the Siamese Kingdom, and theChola Empire had tried to exert control over the smaller Malay states.[55] The power of Srivijaya declined from the 12th century as the relationship between the capital and its vassals broke down. Wars with the Javanese caused it to request assistance from China, and wars with Indian states are also suspected. In the 11th century, the centre of power shifted toMalayu, a port possibly located further up the Sumatran coast near theJambi River.[67] The power of the Buddhist Maharajas was further undermined by thespread of Islam. Areas which were converted to Islam early, such asAceh, broke away from Srivijaya's control. By the late 13th century, the Siamese kings ofSukhothai had brought most of Malaya under their rule. In the 14th century, the HinduMajapahit Empire came into possession of the peninsula.[66]
An excavation by Tom Harrisson in 1949 unearthed a series of Chinese ceramics atSantubong (nearKuching) that date to theTang andSong dynasties. It is possible that Santubong was an important seaport in Sarawak during the period, but its importance declined during theYuan dynasty, and the port was deserted during theMing dynasty.[77]
According to theMalay Annals, a new ruler namedSang Sapurba was promoted as the new paramount of the Srivijayan mandala. It was said that after he acceded toSeguntang Hill with his two younger brothers, Sang Sapurba entered into a sacred covenant with Demang Lebar Daun, the native ruler of Palembang.[78] The newly installed sovereign afterwards descended from the hill of Seguntang into the great plain of theMusi River, where he married Wan Sendari, the daughter of the local chief, Demang Lebar Daun. Sang Sapurba was said to have reigned inMinangkabau lands.
In 1324, a Srivijaya prince,Sang Nila Utama founded theKingdom of Singapura (Temasek). According to tradition, he was related to Sang Sapurba. He maintained control over Temasek for 48 years. He was recognized as ruler over Temasek by an envoy of the Chinese Emperor sometime around 1366. He was succeeded by his son Paduka Sri Pekerma Wira Diraja (1372–1386) and grandson, Paduka Seri Rana Wira Kerma (1386–1399). In 1401, the last ruler, Paduka Sri MaharajaParameswara, was expelled from Temasek by forces from Majapahit orAyutthaya. He later headed north and founded theSultanate of Malacca in 1402.[79]: 245–246 The Sultanate of Malacca succeeded the Srivijaya Empire as a Malay political entity in the archipelago.[80][81]
Islam came to theMalay Archipelago through the Arab and Indian traders in the 13th century, ending the age of Hinduism and Buddhism.[82] It arrived in the region gradually and became the religion of the elite before it spread to the commoners. Thesyncretic form of Islam in Malaysia was influenced by previous religions and was originally not orthodox.[55]
The port ofMalacca on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula was founded in 1400 byParameswara, a Srivijayan prince fleeingTemasek (now Singapore).[55] Parameswara sailed to Temasek to escape persecution. There he came under the protection of Temagi, a Malay chief from Patani who was appointed by the king ofSiam as regent of Temasek. Within a few days, Parameswara killed Temagi and appointed himself regent. Some five years later he had to leave Temasek, due to threats from Siam. During this period, a Javanese fleet from Majapahit attacked Temasek.[citation needed]
Parameswara headed north to find a new settlement, reaching a fishing village at the mouth of the Bertam River (former name of the Melaka River) where he founded what would become theMalacca Sultanate. Over time this developed into modern-dayMalacca Town. According to theMalay Annals, here Parameswara saw amouse deer outwitting a dog resting under aMalacca tree. Taking this as a good omen, he decided to establish a kingdom calledMalacca. He built and improved facilities for trade. The Malacca Sultanate is commonly considered the first independent state in the peninsula.[83]
In 1404, the first officialChinese trade envoy led by Admiral Yin Qing arrived in Malacca. Later, Parameswara was escorted byZheng He and other envoys on his successful visits. Malacca's relationships withMing granted protection to Malacca against attacks fromSiam andMajapahit and Malacca officially submitted as aprotectorate ofMing China. This encouraged the development of Malacca into a major trade settlement on the trade route between China andIndia, the Middle East, Africa and Europe.[85] To prevent the Malaccan empire from falling to the Siamese and Majapahit, he forged a relationship with Ming China for protection.[86][87] Following the establishment of this relationship, the prosperity of the Malacca entrepôt was then recorded by the first Chinese visitor,Ma Huan, who travelled together with AdmiralZheng He.[88][84] In Malacca during the early 15th century, Ming China actively sought to develop a commercial hub and a base of operation for theirtreasure voyages into the Indian Ocean.[89] Malacca had been a relatively insignificant region, not even qualifying as a polity prior to the voyages according to bothMa Huan andFei Xin, and was a vassal region ofSiam.[89] In 1405, the Ming court dispatched AdmiralZheng He with a stone tablet enfeoffing the Western Mountain of Malacca as well as an imperial order elevating the status of the port to a country.[89] The Chinese also established a government depot (官廠) as a fortified cantonment for their soldiers.[89] Ma Huan reported that Siam did not dare to invade Malacca thereafter.[89] The rulers of Malacca, such as Parameswara in 1411, would pay tribute to the Chinese emperor in person.[89]
The emperor of Ming China was sending out fleets of ships to expand trade. Admiral Zheng He called at Malacca and brought Parameswara with him on his return to China, a recognition of his position as ruler of Malacca. In exchange for regular tribute, the Chinese emperor offered Melaka protection from the constant threat of a Siamese attack. Because of its strategic location, Malacca was an important stopping point forZheng He's fleet.[90] Due to Chinese involvement, Malacca had grown as a key alternative to other important and established ports.[a] The Chinese and Indians who settled in the Malay Peninsula before and during this period are the ancestors of today'sBaba-Nyonya andChitty communities. According to one theory, Parameswara became a Muslim when he married a Princess of Pasai and he took the fashionable Persian title "Shah", calling himself Iskandar Shah.[87] In 1414, Parameswara's son was then officially recognised as the second ruler of Melaka by the Chinese Emperor and styled Raja Sri Rama Vikrama, Raja of Parameswara of Temasek and Malacca and he was known to his Muslim subjects as Sultan Sri Iskandar Zulkarnain Shah (Megat Iskandar Shah). He ruled Malacca from 1414 to 1424.[91] Through the influence of Indian Muslims and, to a lesser extent,Hui people from China, Islam became increasingly common during the 15th century.
After an initial period paying tribute to theAyutthaya,[55] the kingdom rapidly assumed the place previously held by Srivijaya, establishing independent relations with China, and exploiting its position dominating the Straits to control the China-India maritime trade, which became increasingly important when theMongol conquests closed the overland route between China and the west.
Within a few years of its establishment, Malacca officially adopted Islam. Parameswara became a Muslim, and because Malacca was under a Muslim prince, the conversion of Malays to Islam accelerated in the 15th century.[66] The political power of the Malacca Sultanate helped Islam's rapid spread through the archipelago.[66] By the start of the 16th century, with the Malacca Sultanate in theMalay Peninsula and parts ofSumatra,[92] theDemak Sultanate inJava,[93] and other kingdoms around the Malay Archipelago increasingly converting to Islam,[94] it had become the dominant religion among Malays, and reached as far as the modern-day Philippines, leavingBali as an isolated outpost ofHinduism today. The government in Malacca was based on thefeudal system.[95]
Malacca's reign lasted little more than a century, but during this time became the established centre of Malay culture. Most future Malay states originated from this period.[82] Malacca became a cultural centre, creating the matrix of the modern Malay culture: a blend of indigenous Malay and imported Indian, Chinese and Islamic elements. Malacca's fashions in literature, art, music, dance and dress, and the ornate titles of itsroyal court, came to be seen as the standard for all ethnic Malays. The court of Malacca also gave great prestige to theMalay language, which had originally evolved in Sumatra and been brought to Malacca at the time of its foundation. In time Malay came to be theofficial language of all the Malaysian states, although local languages survived in many places. After the fall of Malacca, theSultanate of Brunei became the major centre of Islam.[96][97]
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From the 15th century onwards, the Portuguese started seeking a maritime route to Asia. In 1511,Afonso de Albuquerque led an expedition to Malaya which seized Malacca with the intent of using it as a base for activities in Southeast Asia.[55] This was the first colonial claim in what is now Malaysia.[66] The son of the last Sultan of Malacca,Alauddin Riayat Shah II fled to the southern tip of the peninsula, where he founded a state that which became theSultanate of Johor in 1528.[55] Another son,Muzaffar Shah I established the Perak Sultanate to the north. Portuguese influence was strong, as they aggressively tried to convert the population of Malacca to Catholicism.[55] In 1571, the Spanish capturedManila and established a colony in the Philippines, reducing the Sultanate of Brunei's power.[97]
After the fall of Malacca to Portugal, the Johor Sultanate on the southern Malay Peninsula and theSultanate of Aceh on northern Sumatra moved to fill the power vacuum left behind.[55] The three powers struggled to dominate the Malay Peninsula and the surrounding islands.[67] Meanwhile, the importance of theStrait of Malacca as an east–west shipping route was growing, while the islands of Southeast Asia were themselves prized sources of natural resources (metals, spices, etc.) whose inhabitants were being further drawn into the global economy.
In 1607, the Sultanate of Aceh rose as the most powerful and wealthiest state in theMalay Archipelago. Under SultanIskandar Muda's reign, the sultanate's control was extended over a number of Malay states. During theBattle of Duyon River, Iskandar Muda's disastrous campaign against Malacca in 1629, the combined Portuguese and Johor forces managed to destroy all the ships of his formidable fleet and 19,000 troops according to a Portuguese account.[98]
In the early 17th century, theDutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, or VOC) was established. Backed by the Dutch, Johor established a loose hegemony over theMalay states, except Perak, which was able to play-off Johor against the Siamese to the north and retain its independence.[99] The Dutch did not interfere in local matters in Malacca, but at the same time diverted most trade to its colonies onJava.[55]
At its height, the sultanate controlled modern-day Johor, several territories by the Klang and Linggi rivers, Singapore,Bintan,Riau,Lingga,Karimun,Bengkalis,Kampar andSiak inSumatra.[100] The Portuguese and Johor werefrequently in conflict in the 16th century, most notably in the1587 siege of Johor. During theTriangular war, Aceh launched multiple raids against both Johor and Portuguese forces to tighten its grip over the straits. The rise and expansion of Aceh encouraged the Portuguese and Johor to sign a short-lived truce. During the rule ofIskandar Muda, Aceh attacked Johor in 1613 and again in 1615.[101]
In the early 17th century, theDutch reached Southeast Asia. At that time the Dutch were at war with thePortuguese and allied themselves to Johor. Two treaties were signed between AdmiralCornelis Matelief de Jonge and Raja Bongsu of Johor in 1606.[102] The combined Johor-Dutch forces ultimately failed tocapture Malacca in 1606. Finally in 1641, the Dutch and Johor headed by Bendahara Skudai, defeated the Portuguese in theBattle of Malacca. The Dutch took control of Malacca and agreed not to seek territories or wage war with Johor. By the time the fortress at Malacca surrendered, the town's population had already been greatly decimated by famine and disease.[103]
With the fall of Portuguese Malacca in 1641 and the decline of Aceh due to the growing power of the Dutch, Johor started to re-establish itself as a power along the Straits of Malacca during the reign of SultanAbdul Jalil Shah III (1623–1677).[104]Jambi emerged as a regional economic and political power in Sumatra. Initially there was an attempt of an alliance between Johor and Jambi by way of a promised marriage. However, the alliance broke down and the Johor-Jambi war (1666–1679) ensued. After the sacking of Batu Sawar by Jambi in 1673, the capital of Johor was frequently moved to avoid the threat of attack.[105] The sultan escaped to Pahang and died four years later. His successor, SultanIbrahim Shah (1677–1685), then engaged the help of theBugis in the fight to defeat Jambi.[106] Johor would eventually prevail in 1679, but also ended in a weakened position as the Bugis refused to return toMakassar where they came from. On top of this, theMinangkabaus of Sumatra also started to assert their influence.[107]
In the 1690s the Bugis, who played an important role in defeating Jambi two decades earlier, had a major political influence in Johor. Both the Bugis and the Minangkabau realised how the death of SultanMahmud II in 1699 caused a power vacuum and allowed them to exert their power in Johor. The Minangkabau introduced a Minangkabau prince,Raja Kecil fromSiak who claimed he was the posthumous son of Mahmud II. With the help of the Orang Laut, Raja Kecil then captured Riau in 1718, the then capital of the Johor Sultanate and installed himself as the new Johor Sultan, Jalil Rahmat Shah, without the knowledge of the Bugis. Raja Sulaiman of Johor dethroned Raja Kechil with help from the BugisDaeng Parani and reclaimed the throne as SultanSulaiman Badrul Alam Shah (1722–1760), but he was a weak ruler and became a puppet of the Bugis.[105] During the reign of SultanMahmud Shah III, the mid-to-late 18th century saw the Bugis attempting to expand their influence in the region. This brought them into conflicts with the Dutch, which resulted in a final major battle in 1784 between the two, which ended Bugis and Johor dominance in the region.[108]
Based on the Perak Royal Genealogy ("Salasilah Raja-Raja Perak"), the Perak Sultanate was formed in the early 16th century on the banks of thePerak River by the eldest son of Malaccan SultanMahmud Shah.[109][110][111] He ascended to the throne asMuzaffar Shah I (1528–1549), first Sultan of Perak, after surviving thecapture of Malacca by thePortuguese in 1511 and living quietly inSiak for a period. He became sultan through the efforts of Tun Saban, a local leader and trader between Perak and Klang.[110] There had been no sultans in Perak when Tun Saban first arrived in the area fromKampar in Sumatra.[112] Most of the area's residents were traders from Malacca, Selangor and Sumatra. Perak's administration became more organised after the Sultanate was established. With the opening up of Perak in the 16th century, the state became a source of tin ore. It appears that anyone was free to trade in the commodity, although the tin trade did not attract significant attention until the 1610s.[113][114]
Throughout the early 17th century, theSultanate of Aceh continually harassed most parts of the Malay Peninsula.[115][108] Although Perak fell under the authority of Aceh, it remained entirely independent from Siamese control for over 200 years from 1612,[108][116] in contrast with its neighbour, Kedah, and other northern Malay sultanates.[117][118]
When the last Perak sultan of direct Malaccan lineage, Sallehuddin Riayat Shah died without an heir in 1635, a state of uncertainty prevailed in Perak. This was exacerbated by a deadly cholera epidemic.[110] Perak chieftains were left with no alternative but to turn toIskandar Thani of Aceh, who sent his relative, Raja Sulong, to become the new Perak Sultan,Muzaffar Shah II (1636–1653).
Aceh's influence on Perak began to wane when theDutch East India Company (VOC) arrived, in the mid-17th century.[119] When Perak refused to enter into a contract with the VOC as its northern neighbours had done, a blockade of the Perak River halted the tin trade, causing suffering among Aceh's merchants.[120] In 1650, Aceh's SultanaTaj ul-Alam ordered Perak to sign an agreement with the VOC, on condition that the tin trade would be conducted exclusively with Aceh's merchants.[121] By the following year, the VOC had secured a monopoly over the tin trade, setting up a store in Perak.[122] Following the long competition between Aceh and the VOC over Perak's tin trade,[123] on 15 December 1653, the two parties jointly signed a treaty with Perak granting the Dutch exclusive rights to tin extracted from mines located in the state.[110][124]
In 1699, when Johor lost its last sultan of Malaccan lineage, SultanMahmud Shah II, Perak now had the sole claim of being the final heir of the old Sultanate of Malacca. However, Perak could not match the prestige and power of either the Malaccan or Johor Sultanates.[105] Perak endured 40 years of civil war in the early 18th century, where rival princes were bolstered by local chiefs, the Bugis and Minang, all fighting for a share of tin revenues. The Bugis and several Perak chiefs were successful in ousting the Perak ruler, SultanMuzaffar Riayat Shah III in 1743. In 1747, he only held power in north Perak and signed a treaty with the Dutch Commissioner Ary Verbrugge, under which Perak's ruler recognised Dutch monopoly over the tin trade and agreed to sell all the tin ore to Dutch traders.[125]
TheOld Pahang Sultanate centred in modern-dayPekan was established in the 15th century. At the height of its influence, the sultanate controlled the entire Pahang basin.[126] The sultanate had its origins as a vassal to the Malaccan Sultanate. Its first sultan was a Malaccan prince,Muhammad Shah (1455–1475), himself the grandson ofDewa Sura, the last pre-Malaccan ruler of Pahang.[126] Over the years, Pahang grew independent from Malaccan control and at one point even established itself as a rival state to Malacca until the latter's demise in 1511.[127] In 1528, when the last Malaccan sultan died, the sultan at the time,Mahmud Shah I (c. 1519–1530) joined forces with the Sultan of Johor,Alauddin Riayat Shah II, and began to expel the Portuguese from the Malay Peninsula. Two attempts were made in 1547 atMuar and in 1551 atPortuguese Malacca. However, in the face of superior Portuguese arms and vessels, the Pahang and Johor forces were forced to retreat on both occasions.
During the reign of SultanAbdul Kadir (1560–1590), Pahang enjoyed a brief period of cordial relations with the Portuguese in the second half of the 16th century. However, in 1607, following a visit byAdmiral Matelief de Jonge of theDutch Empire, Pahang cooperated with them in an attempt to get rid of the Portuguese.[128] There was an attempt to establish a Johor-Pahang alliance to assist the Dutch. However, a quarrel erupted between SultanAbdul Ghafur of Pahang (1592–1614) andAlauddin Riayat Shah III of Johor (1597–1615). This resulted in Johor declaring war on Pahang in 1612; with the aid of SultanAbdul Jalilul Akbar ofBrunei, Pahang eventually defeated Johor in 1613.
In 1615, the AcehneseIskandar Muda invaded Pahang, forcingAlauddin Riayat Shah to retreat into the interior of Pahang. He nevertheless continued to exercise some ruling powers. His reign in exile is considered to have officially ended after the installation of a distant Johorean relative,Raja Bujang (Abdul Jalil Shah III) to the Pahang throne in 1615 with the support of the Portuguese.[128] However, he was eventually deposed in the Acehnese invasion of 1617, but restored to the Pahang throne and also installed as the new Sultan of Johor following the death of his uncle, SultanAbdullah Ma'ayat Shah in 1623. This event led to the union of the crown of Pahang and Johor, and the formal establishment of Pahang-ruled Johor.[128]
During the 17th century Johor-Jambi war, SultanAbdul Jalil Shah III (r. 1623–1677) of Johor engaged the help ofBugis mercenaries fromSulawesi to fight against Jambi.[106] After Johor won in 1679, the Bugis decided to stay and asserted their power in the region.[107] Many Bugis began to migrate and settle along the coast of Selangor such as the estuaries of the Selangor andKlang rivers. SomeMinangkabaus may have also settled in Selangor by the 17th century, perhaps earlier.[129] The Bugis and theMinangkabaus fromSumatra struggled for control of Johor.Raja Kecil, backed by the Minangkabaus, invaded Selangor but were driven off by the Bugis in 1742. To establish a power base, the Bugis led by RajaSalehuddin (1705–1788) founded the present hereditarySelangor Sultanate with its capital atKuala Selangor in 1766.[130] Selangor is unique as it is the only state on the Malay Peninsula that was founded by the Bugis.[131]
Before its conversion to Islam, the oldest records of Brunei in Arabic sources defined it as "Sribuza" which was a Bornean Vassal-State toSrivijaya.[132] The Arabic authorYa'qubi writing in the 9th century recorded that the kingdom of Musa (probably referring to Brunei) was in alliance with the kingdom of Mayd (eitherMa-i orMadja-as in the Philippines), against theTang dynasty.[133]
One of the earliest Chinese records of an independent kingdom in Borneo was the 977 letter to theSong dynasty emperor from the ruler of Boni (Brunei).[134] The Bruneians regained their independence from Srivijaya due to the onset of a Javanese-Sumatran war.[135] In 1225, the Chinese officialZhao Rukuo reported that Boni had 100 warships to protect its trade, and that there was great wealth in the kingdom.[136] In the 14th century, a Chinese annal (Yuan DadeNanhai zhi) reported that Boni invaded or administeredSabah, some parts of Sarawak and ruled the formerly independent kingdoms ofButuan,Sulu andMayd, as well asMalilu andWenduling in present-dayManila andMindanao, atnorthern andsouthern Philippines, respectively. Later, the Sulu kingdom invaded and occupied ports in Boni-ruled Sabah. They were later evicted with the help of the Majapahit Empire, which Brunei became a vassal to in the late 14th century. Nevertheless, the Sulus stole 2 Sacred Pearls from the Brunei king.[137][138]
By the 15th century, the empire became aMuslim state, when the king of Brunei converted to Islam, brought Muslim Indians and Arab merchants from other parts ofMaritime Southeast Asia, who came to trade and spread Islam.[139][140] During the rule ofBolkiah (1485–1524) the empire controlled the coastal areas of northwest Borneo and reached the Philippines atSeludong (present-dayManila), theSulu Archipelago and some parts ofMindanao which Brunei had incorporated via royal intermarriage with the rulers ofSulu, Manila and Maguindanao.[141][142][143][144][145][146][147][148]
In the 16th century, the Brunei empire's influence also extended as far asKapuas River delta in West Kalimantan. Other sultanates in the area had close relations with the Brunei Monarchy, being in some cases effectively under the hegemony of the Brunei ruling family for periods of time, such as the Malay sultans ofPontianak,Samarinda andBanjarmasin. The MalaySultanate of Sambas (present-dayWest Kalimantan), theSultanate of Sulu and the Muslim Rajahs of precolonialManila had developed dynastic relations with the royal house of Brunei. TheSultanate of Sarawak (covering present dayKuching, known to the Portuguesecartographers asCerava, and one of the five great seaports on the island of Borneo), though under the influence of Brunei, was self-governed underSultan Tengah before being fully integrated into the Bruneian Empire upon sultan Tengah's death in 1641.[149][150][151]
The Bruneian empire began to decline during the arrival of western powers. Spain sent several expeditions fromMexico to invade and colonise Brunei's territories in the Philippines. Eventually the Spanish, theirVisayan allies and theirLatin-American recruits assaulted Brunei itself during theCastilian War. Though there were rapes, sacks and pillaging, the invasion was only temporary as the Spanish retreated.[152] Brunei was unable to regain the territory it lost in the Philippines, yet it still maintained sway in Borneo.
By the early 19th century, Sarawak had become a loosely governed territory under the control of the Brunei Sultanate. Brunei only had authority along the coastal regions of Sarawak where it was held by semi-independent Malay leaders. Meanwhile, the interior of Sarawak suffered from tribal wars fought byIban,Kayan, andKenyah peoples, who aggressively fought to expand their territories.[153]
Following the discovery ofantimony ore in the Kuching region,Pangeran Indera Mahkota (a representative of the Sultan of Brunei) began to develop the territory between 1824 and 1830. When antimony production increased, the Brunei Sultanate demanded higher taxes from Sarawak, which led to civil unrest and chaos.[154] In 1839, SultanOmar Ali Saifuddin II (1827–1852), ordered his uncle thePengiran Muda Hashim to restore order. It was around this time thatJames Brooke arrived in Sarawak, and Pengiran Muda Hashim requested his assistance in the matter, but Brooke refused.[155] However, he agreed to a further request during his next visit to Sarawak in 1840. On 24 September 1841, Pengiran Muda Hashim agreed to deposePangeran Indera Mahkota and bestow the title of governor on James Brooke. This appointment was later confirmed by the Sultan of Brunei in 1842.[156]
The weakness of the small coastal Malay states led to the immigration of theBugis, escaping from Dutch colonisation ofSulawesi, who established numerous settlements on the peninsula which they used to interfere with Dutch trade.[55] They seized control of Johor following the assassination of the last Sultan of the old Melaka royal line in 1699.[citation needed] The Bugis expanded their power in the states ofJohor, Kedah,Perak, andSelangor.[55] TheMinangkabau from central Sumatra migrated into Malaya and eventually established their own state inNegeri Sembilan. The fall of Johor left apower vacuum on the Malay Peninsula, which was partly filled by the Siamese kings of theAyutthaya Kingdom, who made the five northern Malay states—Kedah, Kelantan,Patani, Perlis, andTerengganu—their vassals.
The economic importance of Malaya to Europe grew rapidly during the 18th century. The fast-growing tea trade between China and the United Kingdom increased the demand for high-quality Malayan tin, which was used to line tea-chests. Malayan pepper also had a high reputation in Europe, while Kelantan andPahang had gold mines. The growth of tin andgold mining and associatedservice industries led to the first influx of foreign settlers into the Malay world—initially Arabs and Indians, later Chinese.[citation needed]
After theFall of Ayutthaya in 1767, the Northern Malay Sultanates were freed from Siamese domination temporarily. In 1786, British traderFrancis Light managed to obtain a lease ofPenang Island from SultanAhmad Tajuddin Halim Shah II of Kedah on behalf of theEast India Company. Siam re-exerted control over the Northern Malay Sultanates and sacked Pattani; Kedah came under Siamese suzerainty. King Rama II of Siam orderedNoi Na Nagara ofLigor to invade the Kedah Sultanate in 1821. Under theBurney Treaty of 1826, the exiled Kedah Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin was not restored to his throne. He and his armed supporters then fought in a series of wars known as Perang Musuh Bisik for his restoration over twelve years (1830–1842).[157] When theSiamese armyinvaded and occupied Kedah between 1821 and 1842, local Arab families supported the Sultan's efforts to lead resistance. In 1842, Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin finally agreed to accept Siamese terms and was restored to his throne of Kedah. The following year,Syed Hussein Jamalullail was installed by the Siamese as the firstRaja of Perlis, after the Sultan of Kedah gave his endorsement for the formation ofPerlis; Siam separated Perlis into a separate principality directly vassal to Bangkok.[158]
Around 1760,Long Yunus, an aristocratic warlord ofPatani origin, succeeded in unifying the territory of present-dayKelantan and was succeeded in 1795 by his son-in-law, Tengku Muhammad, bySultan Mansur of Terengganu. The enthronement of Tengku Muhammad by a noble from Terengganu was opposed by Long Yunus' sons, thus triggering a war against Terengganu byLong Muhammad, the eldest son of Long Yunus. The pro-Terengganu faction was defeated in 1800, and Long Muhammad ruled Kelantan with the new title of sultan as Sultan Muhammad I.Terengganu experienced stability under the reign of SultanOmar Riayat Shah, who was remembered as a devout ruler who promoted trade and stable government. Under Thai rule, Terengganu prospered and was largely left alone by the authorities inBangkok.[108] However, in the Burney Treaty of 1826, the treaty acknowledged Siamese claims over several northern Malay states—Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis, Terengganu—the futureUnfederated Malay States—andPatani. The treaty further guaranteed British possession ofPenang and their rights to trade in Kelantan and Terengganu without Siamese interference. However, the five Malay-ethnic states were not represented in the treaty negotiation. In 1909, the parties of the agreement signeda new treaty that superseded the Burney Treaty and transferred four of the five Malay states from Siamese to British control, except for Patani.[159][160] As Patani was not included in theAnglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 and remained under Siamese rule, this led Patani to be excluded from the Federation of Malaya in 1957.
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Before the mid-19th century, British interests in the region were predominantly economic, with little interest in territorial control. Already thestrongest European power in India, the British were looking towards Southeast Asia for new territories.[55] The growth of the China trade in British ships increased theEast India Company's desire for bases in the region. Various islands were used for this purpose, but the first permanent acquisition wasPenang, leased from theSultan of Kedah in 1786.[161] This was followed soon after by the leasing of a block of territory on the mainland opposite Penang (known asProvince Wellesley). In 1795, during theNapoleonic Wars, the British, with the consent of the Dutch under French occupation, occupied Dutch Melaka to forestall possible French encroachment.[66]
When Malacca was handed back to the Dutch in 1818,[162] the British governor,Stamford Raffles, looked for an alternative base, and in 1819 he acquired Singapore from the Sultan of Johor.[163] The exchange of the British colony ofBencoolen for Malacca with the Dutch left the British as the sole colonial power on the peninsula.[55] The territories of the British were set up as free ports, attempting to break the monopoly held by the Dutch and French at the time, and making them large bases of trade. They allowed Britain to control all trade through the straits of Malacca.[55] British influence was increased by Malayan fears of Siameseexpansionism, to which Britain made a useful counterweight. During the 19th century, the Malay Sultans aligned themselves with theBritish Empire, due to the benefits of associations with the British and their fear of Siamese or Burmese incursions.[67]
In 1824, British control in Malaya (before the name Malaysia) was formalised by theAnglo-Dutch Treaty, which divided the Malay Archipelago between Britain and the Netherlands. The Dutch evacuated Melaka[66] and renounced all interest in Malaya, while the British recognised Dutch rule over the rest of theEast Indies. By 1846, the British controlled Penang, Malacca, Singapore, and the island ofLabuan, which they established as thecrown colony of theStraits Settlements,[55] administered first under theEast India Company until 1867, when they were transferred to theColonial Office in London.[67]
Throughout the 19th century, the British became increasingly more active in the internal politics of the sultanates, such as its involvement in theNaning War (1831–1832), thePahang Civil War (1857–1863), theLarut Wars (1861–1874), and theKlang War (1867–1874).
Initially, the British followed a policy of non-intervention in relations between the Malay states.[67] The commercial importance oftin mining in the Malay states to merchants in the Straits Settlements led to infighting between the aristocracy on the peninsula. The destabilisation of these states damaged the commerce in the area. The wealth of Perak's tin mines made political stability there a priority for British investors and Perak was thus the first Malay state to agree to the supervision of a British resident.[55] TheRoyal Navy was employed to bring about a peaceful resolution to civil disturbances caused by Chinese and Malay gangs employed in a political fight betweenNgah Ibrahim and Raja Muda Abdullah. ThePangkor Treaty of 1874 paved the way for the expansion of British influence in Malaya. The British concluded treaties with some Malay states, installingresidents who advised the Sultans and soon became the de facto rulers of their states.[164] These advisors held power in everything except to do with Malay religion and customs.[55]
Johor was the sole remaining state to maintain its independence, by modernising and giving British and Chinese investors legal protection. By the turn of the 20th century, the states ofPahang, Selangor,Perak, andNegeri Sembilan, known together as theFederated Malay States, had British advisors.[55] In 1909 the Siamese kingdom was compelled to cedeKedah, Kelantan,Perlis andTerengganu, which already had British advisors, over to the British.[55]Sultan Abu Bakar of Johor andQueen Victoria were personal acquaintances who recognised each other as equals. It was not until 1914 that Sultan Abu Bakar's successor,Sultan Ibrahim, accepted a British adviser.[165] The four previously Siamese states and Johor were known as theUnfederated Malay States. The states under the most direct British control developed rapidly, becoming the largest suppliers in the world of first tin, then rubber.[55]
By 1910, the pattern of British rule in the Malay lands was established. The Straits Settlements were aCrown colony, ruled by a governor under the supervision of theColonial Office in London. Their population was roughly 50% Chinese-Malaysian, but all residents, regardless of race, were British subjects. The first four states to accept British residents, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, and Pahang, were termed the Federated Malay States: while technically independent, they were placed under a Resident-General in 1895. The Unfederated Malay States had a slightly larger degree of independence. Johor, as Britain's closest ally in Malay affairs, had the privilege of a written constitution, which gave the Sultan the right to appoint his own Cabinet, but he was generally careful to consult the British first.[166]
During the late 19th century the British also gained control of the north coast ofBorneo. Development on the peninsula and Borneo were generally separate until the 19th century.[167] The eastern part of this region (nowSabah) was under the nominal control of the Sultan ofSulu, who later became a vassal of theSpanish East Indies. The rest was the territory of the Sultanate ofBrunei. In 1840, British adventurerJames Brooke helped suppress a revolt, and in return received the title of raja and the right to govern the Sarawak River District in 1841. In 1843, his title was recognised as hereditary, and the "White Rajahs" began ruling Sarawak as a de facto independent state in 1846. The Brookes expanded Sarawak at the expense of Brunei.[55]
In 1881, theBritish North Borneo Company was granted control of the territory ofBritish North Borneo, appointing a governor and legislature. Its status was similar to that of a British Protectorate, and like Sarawak it expanded at the expense of Brunei.[55] In 1947 Britain transferred control of theTurtle Islands andMangsee Islands to thePhilippine government, which had up until then been administered by the British North Borneo Company.[168][169] Since the administration of PresidentDiosdado Macapagal the Philippines have laid claim to eastern Sabah on the basis that the territory was part of the defunct Sultanate of Sulu's territory. In 1888, what was left of Brunei was made a British protectorate, and in 1891 another Anglo-Dutch treaty formalised the border between British and Dutch Borneo.
In the pre-colonial period and the first few decades after formal colonial rule began in British Malaya, "Malay" was neither a racial category nor a fixed identity in the modern sense.[170] The British imposed the concept of race on their colonial subjects.
Unlike some colonial powers, the British viewed their empire as an economic venture, expecting their colonies to generate profits for shareholders in London.[171] Initially, British colonisers were drawn to the Malay Archipelago'stin andgold mines. Soon, however, British planters experimented with tropical plantation crops—tapioca,gambier, pepper, andcoffee—and in 1877, introduced the rubber plant from Brazil. Rubber quickly became Malaya's primary export, driven by surging demand from European industry, and was later complemented bypalm oil.[172] These industries demanded a largelabour force, prompting the British to bring workers fromthe longer-established British colony in India, mostlyTamil-speakers fromSouth India, to serve as indentured labourers on plantations.[173] Meanwhile, the mines, mills, and docks attracted numerous immigrant workers from southern China. As a result, towns like Singapore, Penang, andIpoh, along withKuala Lumpur—founded as a tin-mining centre in 1857—became majority Chinese. By 1891, when Malaya's first census was conducted, the main tin-mining states of Perak and Selangor had Chinese majorities.[174]
Workers often faced violent treatment from contractors and frequent sickness. Many Chinese labourers saw their debts grow due toaddictions toopium andgambling—vices that generated significant revenue for the British colonial government—while Indian labourers' debts increased throughalcohol dependency. These debts tied workers to their labour contracts for extended periods.[171]
Some Chinese immigrant workers were linked to networks ofmutual aid societies (run by "Hui-Guan" 會館, or non-profit organisations). In the 1890s,Yap Ah Loy, the Kapitan China of Kuala Lumpur, emerged as Malaya's wealthiest individual, owning a chain of mines, plantations, and shops. From the outset, the Chinese dominated Malaya's banking and insurance sectors, and their businesses, often partnered with London firms, soon controlled the Malayan economy.[172] Chinese bankers also lent money to Malay sultans, gaining both political and economic influence. Initially, most Chinese immigrants were men who married Malay women, creating a Sino-Malayan orbaba community, but they later imported Chinese brides, establishing permanent settlements with schools and temples.[172]
During the early 20th century, an Indian commercial andprofessional class emerged, though most Indians remained poor and uneducated, living inrural ghettos in rubber-growing regions.[172]
Traditional Malay society suffered greatly from the loss of political sovereignty to British colonisers. The sultans, perceived as collaborators with both the British and the Chinese, lost some traditional prestige, yet most rural Malays continued to revere them.[172] In the early 20th century, a small group of Malay nationalist intellectuals emerged, alongside a revival of Islam prompted by the perceived threat of imported religions, especially Christianity. Though few Malaysconverted to Christianity, many Chinese did. Northern regions, less exposed to Western ideas, became bastions of Islamic conservatism.[172]
The British appointed elite Malays to positions in the police and localmilitary units, while also opening most administrative positions to non-Europeans. By contrast, the Chinese largely funded their own schools and colleges, importing teachers from China, while the British sought to educate young Malay elites to reinforce colonial notions of race and class hierarchies.[175] To this end, the colonial government establishedMalay College in 1905, dubbed "Bab ud-Darajat" (Gateway to High Rank), and launched the Malay Administrative Service in 1910.[172] Later, they foundedSultan Idris Training College in 1922 and the Malay Women's Training College in 1935, both established to educate Malays. These efforts highlighted the colonial policy that Malaya belonged primarily to the Malays, treating other races as temporary residents—a view increasingly at odds with reality, fuelling resistance against British rule.[172]
The colleges fosteredMalay nationalist sentiments through its lectures and writings, earning recognition as the birthplace of Malay nationalism.[176] In 1938,Ibrahim Yaacob, an alumnus of Sultan Idris College, founded theKesatuan Melayu Muda (Young Malays Union or KMM) in Kuala Lumpur, marking it as British Malaya's first nationalist political organisation. The KMM championedPanji Melayu Raya, an ideal advocating the unification of British Malaya and theDutch East Indies.[176]
BeforeWorld War II, the colonial government grappled with balancing a centralised state and the sultans' authority.[67] In 1935, they abolished the Resident-General position of the Federated States, decentralising powers to individual states, The colonial governmentregarded the Chinese as clever but dangerous, and in the 1920s and 1930s, theKuomintang andChinese Communist Party established rival clandestine organisations in Malaya, sparking frequent disturbances in Chinese towns.[177]
Though part of the British Empire duringWorld War I, Malaya experienced little combat, except for the sinking of theRussian cruiserZhemchug by the German cruiserSMS Emden on 28 October 1914 in theBattle of Penang.
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The British in Malaya were unprepared for the outbreak of thePacific War in December 1941. During the 1930s, anticipating the rising threat of Japanese naval power, they had constructed a major naval base at Singapore but had not foreseen an invasion of Malaya from the north. TheRoyal Air Force had virtually no air capacity in theFar East. Consequently, the Japanese attacked from their bases inFrench Indo-China with impunity and—despite resistance from British, Australian, and Indian forces—the Japanese armyoverran Malaya in two months. Singapore, lacking landward defences, air cover, and awater supply, surrendered in February 1942. The Japanese alsooccupied British Borneo.[178][67]
The Japanese colonial administration viewed the Malays from apan-Asian perspective and encouraged a limited form of Malay nationalism. The Malay nationalist groupKesatuan Melayu Muda, advocates ofMelayu Raya, collaborated with the Japanese, believing Japan would unite the Dutch East Indies, Malaya, and Borneo and grant them independence.[179] However, the Japanese treated the Chinese asenemy aliens with harshness: during theSook Ching, they killed up to 80,000 Chinese in Malaya and Singapore. The Chinese, led by theMalayan Communist Party (MCP), formed the backbone of theMalayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA), which, with British assistance, became the most effective resistance force in occupied Asia.[67]
Although the Japanese claimed to supportMalay nationalism, they alienated Malay nationalists by allowing their allyThailand tore-annex the four northern states—Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, and Terengganu—that had been ceded to British Malaya in 1909.[180] The collapse of Malaya's export markets caused widespreadunemployment, affecting all ethnic groups and increasing Japanese unpopularity.[181]
During theoccupation, ethnic tensions intensified, and nationalism grew.[182] Japan's surrender in August 1945 allowed British forces to reoccupy Malaya by September, beginning with Penang and Singapore.[183] Many Malayans welcomed the British return in 1945, but the pre-war status quo was untenable, and the desire for independence strengthened.[184] Britain, financially strained and led by theLabour government eager to withdraw forces from the East, faced new realities. However, most Malays focused on defending themselves against the MCP rather than demanding immediate independence from the British.[185]
In 1944, the British drew up plans for aMalayan Union, which aimed to unite the Federated and Unfederated Malay States, along with Penang and Malacca, into a single Crown colony that would progress towards independence. The Bornean territories and Singapore were excluded, as their inclusion was thought to complicate the union's formation.[67] However, theMalays strongly opposed the plan, objecting to the diminished power of the Malay rulers and the granting of citizenship toethnic Chinese and other minorities.[186] The British had opted for legalised racial equality, perceiving the Chinese and Indians as more loyal during the war than the Malays.[67] Initially, the sultans supported the plan, but they later withdrew their backing and led the resistance.
In 1946, Malay nationalists, led byDato Onn bin Jaafar, the Chief Minister of Johor, founded theUnited Malays National Organisation (UMNO).[67] UMNO supported independence for Malaya, but only if the Malays exclusively governed the new state. Facing Malay opposition, the British abandoned the equal citizenship proposal. Consequently, the Malayan Union was established in 1946, and replaced by theFederation of Malaya in 1948, which restored theautonomy of the Malay states' rulers under British protection.
Meanwhile, the communists shifted towards open insurrection. The MPAJA had disbanded in December 1945, and the MCP had reorganised as a legal political party, though it had stored the MPAJA's arms for future use. The MCP advocated immediate independence with full equality for all races. Its strength laid in Chinese-dominated trade unions, especially in Singapore, and in Chinese schools. In March 1947, as theCold War intensified and the international communist movement shifted left, the MCP purged its leaderLai Teck and replaced him withChin Peng, a veteran MPAJA guerrilla, who steered the party towardsdirect action. Under MCP leadership, these rebels launched guerrilla operations to expel the British from Malaya. In June 1948, after a series of plantation manager assassinations, the colonial government retaliated by declaring astate of emergency, banning the MCP, and arresting hundreds of its militants. The MCP retreated to the jungle and formed theMalayan Peoples' Liberation Army, comprising about 13,000 mostly ethnic Chinese fighters.
TheMalayan Emergency arose from Britain's new constitution, which classified about 90 percent of ethnic Chinese as non-citizens, and from the eviction of poor peasants to clear land for plantations. Although British authorities long depicted the conflict as a Cold War struggle against communism, the MNLA received scant support from Soviet or Chinese communists. Instead, British governments primarily sought to safeguard their commercial interests in the colony.[187]
The Malayan Emergency spanned 1948 to 1960 and involved a prolonged anti-insurgency campaign byCommonwealth troops in Malaya. The British employed a successful strategy, formalised in 1950 as theBriggs Plan under General SirHarold Briggs, to isolate theMCP from its support base through economic andpolitical concessions to the Chinese and by forcibly resettling more than 400,000 rural inhabitants, mostly Chinese squatters, into guarded "new villages"—effectivelyconcentration camps—in "white areas" free of MCP influence.[187][188] From 1949, British measures, including arrests and early relocations, began to disrupt the MCP's campaign, with significant weakening and recruitment declines following the Briggs Plan's implementation in 1950.[188] Although theMCP assassinated the British High Commissioner, Sir Henry Gurney, in October 1951, this shift to terrorist tactics distanced many moderate Chinese from the party.
The appointment of General SirGerald Templer asHigh Commissioner in 1952 intensified the weakening the Malayan Communist Party and contributing to the eventual decline of the Emergency.[187] Templer developed and implemented moderncounter-insurgency techniques against the MCP guerrillas in Malaya. The war saw abuses committed by both sides. The most notorious atrocity occurred in December 1948 at Batang Kali, a village north of the capital, Kuala Lumpur, whereBritish troops massacred 24 Chinese villagers before burning the village to the ground.[187] Heavy bombers were deployed, dropping thousands of bombs on insurgent positions, with Britain conducting 4,500 air strikes in the conflict's first five years.[187] Although the insurgency was defeated,Commonwealth troops remained amidCold War tensions with theSoviet Union.[189] Against this backdrop,independence for theFederation within the Commonwealth was granted on 31 August 1957,[190] withTunku Abdul Rahman as the first prime minister.[66]
Chinese reaction against the MCP was shown by the formation of theMalayan Chinese Association (MCA) in 1949 as a vehicle for moderate Chinese political opinion. Its leader,Tan Cheng Lock, supported collaboration with UMNO to achieve Malayan independence through equal citizenship, while making sufficient concessions to Malay sensitivities to alleviate nationalist concerns. He formed a close collaboration withTunku Abdul Rahman, the Chief Minister ofKedah and, from 1951, successor to Datuk Onn as leader of UMNO. Both leaders were determined to forge an agreement their communities could accept as the basis for a stable independent state. The UMNO-MCA alliance, which was later joined by theMalayan Indian Congress (MIC) to form theAlliance Party, won convincing victories in local and state elections in both Malay and Chinese areas between 1952 and 1955.[191]
AfterJoseph Stalin's death in 1953, a split emerged in the MCP leadership over the wisdom of continuing the armed struggle. Many MCP militants lost heart and returned home, and by the time Templer left Malaya in 1954, the Emergency appeared to be waning, although it would not officially end until 1960.Chin Peng led a resolute group that lingered in the inaccessible terrain along the Thai border for many years.[192]
During 1955 and 1956, UMNO, the MCA, and British colonial authorities negotiated a constitutional settlement based on the principle of equal citizenship for all races. In exchange, the MCA agreed thatMalaya's head of state would be drawn from the ranks of the Malay rulers, that Malay would be the official language, and that Malay education andeconomic development would be promoted and subsidised. In effect, this meant that Malaya would be governed by the Malays, but the Chinese and Indians would have proportionate representation in the Cabinet and Parliament, would govern states where they formed the majority, and would enjoy protection of their economic positions. The difficult issue of who would control the education system was deferred until after independence.
After theJapanese surrender, theBrooke family and theBritish North Borneo Company relinquished control of Sarawak and North Borneo respectively, and these became British Crown colonies. They were far less economically developed than Malaya, and their local political leaders were too weak to demand independence. Singapore, with its large Chinese majority, achieved autonomy in 1955, and in 1959Lee Kuan Yew became prime minister. TheSultan of Brunei remained a British client in his oil-rich enclave. Between 1959 and 1962, theBritish government orchestrated complex negotiations between these local leaders and the Malayan government.
On 24 April 1961, Lee Kuan Yew proposed the idea of forming Malaysia to Tunku Abdul Rahman during a meeting. Deputy Malayan Prime MinisterAbdul Razak supported the idea of the new federation and worked to convince Abdul Rahman to back it.[193] On 27 May 1961, Abdul Rahman proposed the idea of forming "Malaysia", which would consist ofBrunei,Malaya,North Borneo,Sarawak, andSingapore, all of which, except Malaya, were still under British rule.[194][195][196] It was stated that this would allow the central government to better control and combat communist activities, especially in Singapore. It was also feared that, if Singapore became independent, it would become a base for Chinese chauvinists to threaten Malayan sovereignty. The inclusion of British territories besides Singapore was intended to maintain an ethnic composition similar to that of Malaya, with the Malay and indigenous populations of the other territories balancing theChinese majority in Singapore.[197]
Although Lee Kuan Yew supported the proposal, his opponents from the SingaporeanSocialist Front (Barisan Sosialis) resisted it. In North Borneo, where there were no political parties, community representatives also expressed opposition. Although the Sultan of Brunei supported the merger, theParti Rakyat Brunei opposed it. At theCommonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference in 1961, Abdul Rahman explained his proposal further to its opponents. In October 1961, he obtained agreement from the British government for the plan, provided that feedback was obtained from the communities involved in the merger.
TheCobbold Commission approved a merger with North Borneo and Sarawak; however, it was found that a substantial number of Bruneians opposed the merger. North Borneo drew up a list of points, referred to as the20-point agreement, proposing terms for its inclusion in the new federation. Sarawak prepared a similar memorandum, known as the18-point agreement. Some of the points in these agreements were incorporated into the eventual constitution; some were instead accepted orally. These memoranda are often cited by those who believe that Sarawak's and North Borneo's rights have eroded over time. Areferendum was conducted in Singapore to gauge opinion, and 70% supported the merger with substantial autonomy granted to the state government.[198][199] The Sultanate ofBrunei withdrew from the planned merger due to opposition from segments of its population, as well as arguments over the payment of oil royalties and the status of the sultan in the planned merger.[166][191][200][201] Additionally, the Parti Rakyat Brunei staged anarmed revolt, which, though suppressed, was viewed as potentially destabilising to the new nation.[202]
After reviewing the Cobbold Commission's findings, the British government appointed the Lansdowne Commission to draft a constitution for Malaysia. The eventual constitution was essentially the same as the 1957 constitution, albeit with some rewording—for instance, giving recognition to the special position of the natives of the Borneo States. North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore were also granted some autonomy unavailable to the states of Malaya. After negotiations in July 1963, it was agreed that Malaysia would come into being on 31 August 1963, consisting of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore. The date was chosen to coincide with Malaya's independence day and the British granting self-rule to Sarawak and North Borneo. However,Indonesia and thePhilippines strenuously objected to this development, with Indonesia claiming Malaysia represented a form of "neocolonialism" and the Philippines claiming North Borneo as its territory. Opposition from the Indonesian government, led bySukarno, and attempts by theSarawak United People's Party delayed the formation of Malaysia.[203] Due to these factors, an eight-member UN team was formed to ascertain whether North Borneo and Sarawak truly wanted to join Malaysia.[204][205] Malaysia formally came into being on 16 September 1963, consisting of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore. In 1963, the total population of Malaysia was about 8 million.[206]
At the time of independence, Malaya had significant economic advantages. It was among the world's leading producers of three valuable commodities: rubber, tin, andpalm oil, and a notable iron ore producer. These exports provided the Malayan government a substantial surplus for industrial development and infrastructure projects. Like other post-colonialdeveloping nations in the 1950s and 1960s, Malaya (and later Malaysia) emphasized economic state planning, though UMNO was never a socialist party. TheFirst and Second Malayan Plans (1956–1960 and 1961–1965, respectively) spurred economic growth through state investment in industry and infrastructure repair. The government aimed to reduce Malaya's reliance on commodity exports, recognizing that demand fornatural rubber would decline assynthetic rubber production expanded.[67]
On 15 September 1963, the day before Malaysia's formation, Indonesia and the Philippines withdrew their ambassadors from Malaya. InJakarta, the British and Malayan embassies were stoned, and the British consulate inMedan was ransacked, with Malaysia's consul taking refuge in the US consulate. Malaysia withdrew its ambassadors in response and requested Thailand to represent it diplomatically in both countries.[207]
Indonesian PresidentSukarno, supported by the powerfulCommunist Party of Indonesia (PKI), viewed Malaysia as a "neocolonialist" plot against his country and backed a communist insurgency in Sarawak, primarily involving elements of the local Chinese community. Indonesian irregular forces infiltrated Sarawak and were contained by Malaysian andCommonwealth of Nations forces. This period ofKonfrontasi (an economic, political, and military confrontation) lasted untilthe downfall of Sukarno in 1966.[67][66] The Philippines objected to the federation's formation, claiming North Borneo as part of Sulu, and thus the Philippines.[67] In 1966, PresidentFerdinand Marcos dropped the claim, though it has since been revived, strainingMalaysia–Philippines relations.[208][unreliable source?][209]
TheGreat Depression of the 1930s, followed by theSino-Japanese War, ended Chinese emigration to Malaya. At the time of independence in 1957, Malays comprised 50% of theFederation of Malaya population, Chinese 38%, Indians 11%, and others 1%.[210] This balance was altered by increasing the Chinese population through the inclusion of majority-Chinese Singapore, raising concerns among Malays.[55] The federation increased the Chinese proportion to nearly 40%. Both UMNO and the MCA were concerned about the possible appeal of Lee'sPeople's Action Party (PAP) — then seen as a radical socialist party — to voters in Malaya and supported theSingapore Alliance Party to challenge Lee's position there. Lee, in turn, threatened to run PAP candidates in Malaya at the 1964 federal elections, despite an earlier agreement not to do so (seePAP–UMNO relations). Racial tensions intensified as PAP created an opposition alliance promoting multiracialism and social justice.[67] This provokedTunku Abdul Rahman to demand that Singapore withdraw from Malaysia. Despite efforts by Singapore's leaders to remain in the federation, on 9 August 1965, the Malaysian Parliament voted 126–0 in favour of theexpulsion of Singapore.[211]
The most debated issues of independent Malaysia were education and the disparity of economic power among ethnic communities. The Malays were concerned about the wealth of the Chinese community, even after Singapore's expulsion in 1965. Malay political movements emerged, focused on addressing economic disparity.[212] Since there was no effective opposition party, these issues were contested mainly within thecoalition government, which won a strong majority of 74 out of 104 seats in the1959 Malayan Parliament election.[213] The two issues were related. The Chinese advantage in education helped maintain their economic dominance, which UMNO leaders were determined to end.[213] The MCA leaders were in a dilemma between defending Chinese economic and educational interests and maintaining good relations with UMNO.[213] This produced a crisis in the MCA in 1959, in whichLim Chong Eu's more assertive leadership disagreed with UMNO over the education issue, only to be forced to back down when Tunku Abdul Rahman threatened to break up the coalition.[213]
The Education Act of 1961 formalized UMNO's education policy. Thereafter, Malay and English were the only teaching languages in secondary schools, and state primary schools taught in Malay only. Although the Chinese and Indian communities could maintain their own Chinese andTamil-language primary schools, all students were required to learn Malay and study an agreed national curriculum. Most importantly, the entrance exam to theUniversity of Malaya (which moved from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur in 1962) was conducted in Malay, even though most teaching at the university was in English until the 1970s. This excluded many Chinese students from university admission. At the same time, Malay schools were heavily subsidized, and Malays received prioritized support. This defeat for the MCA over the Education Act greatly weakened its support in the Chinese community.[213]
As in education, the UMNO government's primary goal in economic development was to shift economic power from the Chinese to the Malays. The two Malayan Plans and theFirst Malaysia Plan (1966–1970) allocated resources to development projects benefiting the rural Malay community.[214] TheFederal Land Development Authority (FELDA) and other agencies enabled Malay smallholders to upgrade their production and increase their incomes.[215] The state provided incentives and low-interest loans to help Malays start businesses and began favoring Malay companies in government tendering, prompting some Chinese-owned businesses to appoint Malay managers.[216]
The collaboration between the MCA and the MIC in these policies weakened their influence over the Chinese and Indian electorates. At the same time, the government'saffirmative action policies of the 1950s and 1960s created a discontented class of educated but underemployed Malays. This led to the formation of a new party, theMalaysian People's Movement (Gerakan), in 1968. Gerakan was intentionally designed as a non-communal party, incorporating Malay trade unionists and intellectuals alongside Chinese and Indian leaders.[217] Meanwhile, theIslamic Party of Malaysia (PAS), an Islamist party, and theDemocratic Action Party (DAP), a democratic socialist party, gained growing support at the expense of UMNO and the MCA, respectively.[55]
Following the conclusion of the Malayan Emergency, the predominantlyethnic ChineseMalayan National Liberation Army, the armed wing of theMalayan Communist Party, retreated to theMalaysia-Thailand border. There, they regrouped and retrained for future offensives against the Malaysian government. The insurgency officially began on 17 June 1968, when the MCP ambushed security forces inKroh–Betong, in northernPeninsular Malaysia. Rather than declaring a "state of emergency" as the British had done earlier, the Malaysian government introduced several policy initiatives in response to the insurgency, including the Security and Development Program (KESBAN),Rukun Tetangga (Neighbourhood Watch), and thePeople's Volunteer Corps (RELA Corps).
In the1969 federal elections, the UMNO-MCA-MIC Alliance secured only 48% of the vote, although it retained a majority in the legislature. The MCA lost most of the Chinese-majority seats to Gerakan and DAP candidates. This outcome led to a Malay backlash, which triggered theriots and inter-communal violence. Approximately 6,000 Chinese homes and businesses were burned, and at least 184 people were killed. Western diplomatic sources at the time estimated the death toll to be closer to 600, with most victims being Chinese.[218][219] In response, the government declared a state of emergency, and theNational Operations Council, led by Deputy Prime MinisterAbdul Razak Hussein, assumed power. In September 1970, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman stepped down and was succeeded by Abdul Razak.[55]
Using the newly-gained emergency powers, the new government suspended Parliament, briefly imposedpress censorship, and placed severe restrictions on political activity. TheInternal Security Act together with emergency laws were used to detain individuals indefinitely without trial. These powers were frequently used to suppress dissent. Additionally, a later constitutional amendment passed after the Parliament reconvened prohibited criticism of the Malaysian monarchy, the special position of Malays, or the status of Malay as the national language, even within Parliament.
In 1971, Parliament reconvened, and the controversialNew Economic Policy (NEP) was introduced by Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak to increase the economic participation ofbumiputras relative to other ethnic groups.[220] In 1974, a new coalition government, theBarisan Nasional, was established to replace the Alliance party and includePAS,Gerakan, and other parties.[55] Abdul Razak remained in office until his death in 1976, whenHussein Onn succeeded him and advanced NEP policies until 1981.[221] In 1977, PAS was expelled from BN after opposing federal intervention in theKelantan Emergency, triggered by a political impasse.[222] On 16 July 1981,Mahathir Mohamad became Prime Minister, serving for 22 years, the longest tenure in Malaysian history. During his administration, Malaysia experienced rapid economic growth and implemented numerous large-scale development projects. Key policies, including the NEP, transformed Malaysia’s economy and society, maintaining a delicate ethno-political balance through economic growth and policies promoting equitable participation among all races.[220]
In 1970, three-quarters of Malaysians living below the poverty line were ethnic Malays, most of whom were rural workers largely excluded from Malaysia's modern economy. The government introduced theNew Economic Policy (NEP) in 1971 to address these disparities, with a series of four five-year plans scheduled from 1971 to 1990.[223] The NEP aimed to achieve two main goals: reducing poverty, especially in rural areas, and addressing the economic imbalance by eliminating the association between race and economic prosperity.[55]
This latter goal was interpreted as a strategic shift in economic opportunities from the Chinese community to the Malays, who, at that time, represented only 5% of the professional workforce.[224][225] To increase Malay participation in the modern economy, the government established several state-owned enterprises and agencies, includingPerbadanan Nasional Berhad (PERNAS),Petroliam Nasional Berhad (PETRONAS), and theHeavy Industries Corporation of Malaysia (HICOM). These entities not only directly employed Malay workers but also invested in growing sectors of the economy, creating new technical and administrative roles often allocated to Malays. Consequently, Malay equity in the economy increased from 1.5% in 1969 to 20.3% by 1990.[226]
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Mahathir Mohamad was sworn in as the fourthPrime Minister of Malaysia on 16 July 1981.[227] One of his initial actions was to release 21 detainees held under theInternal Security Act (ISA).[228]
During his early tenure, Mahathir implemented an assertive economic strategy, exemplified by theGuthrie Dawn Raid on 7 September 1981. This strategic economic maneuver, executed byPermodalan Nasional Berhad (PNB), enabled Malaysia to reclaim control ofGuthrie Corporation, a British-owned plantation company, by rapidly acquiring its shares on theLondon Stock Exchange. The operation transferred approximately 200,000 acres of agricultural land into Malaysian ownership, aligning with theNew Economic Policy (NEP) objectives of increasing Bumiputera equity.[229] However, the raid straineddiplomatic relations with theUnited Kingdom. In response,British Prime MinisterMargaret Thatcher tightened stock market regulations, while Malaysia introduced the "Buy British Last" policy in October 1981, prioritizing non-British suppliers in government procurements.[230] Diplomatic reconciliation occurred in 1983 when Thatcher hosted Mahathir at10 Downing Street, leading to agreements on student subsidies, technical assistance programs, and the resolution of the landing rights issue.[230][231]
To promote economic development and reduce dependence on Western models, Mahathir introduced theLook East Policy in 1982, encouraging Malaysians to adopt the work ethics, industrial strategies, and economic practices ofJapan andSouth Korea.[232][233] Alongside this policy, the government emphasizedindustrialisation to diversify the economy away from agriculture. The establishment of the Heavy Industries Corporation of Malaysia (HICOM) in 1983 led to the launch of Malaysia's first national car, theProton Saga, in 1985 byProton, Malaysia's automotive company.[234]
The government introduced itsprivatisation policy in the early 1980s to improve efficiency, reduce government expenditure, and encourage private-sector growth.[235] Privatization efforts spanned key sectors, includingtelecommunications,utilities, andtransportation, attracting foreign investment and supporting Malaysia's economic growth. This program complemented Mahathir's broader focus on industrialization and infrastructure, establishing a foundation for major development projects in later years.[236]
Mahathir sought to redefine the balance of power between themonarchy andParliament through a constitutional amendment in 1983.[237] This amendment required theYang di-Pertuan Agong to assent to any bill within 15 days of its passage by Parliament; otherwise, it would automatically become law. Additionally, it proposed transferring the power to declare a state of emergency from the Agong to the prime minister. Initially supported by the Agong at the time, the proposal was later met with hesitation from him and the Sultans, who baulked at its implications for state-level legislation. A public standoff ensued, with Mahathir organizing rallies to gather public support. The crisis concluded with a compromise, retaining the Agong's emergency powers but allowing Parliament to override a veto by re-passing the bill.[237]
In Mahathir's early years as prime minister, Malaysia saw a resurgence ofIslam andconservatism among the Malay population.Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS), which had previously joined UMNO in government during the 1970s, responded to this shift by adopting a more assertiveIslamist stance under the leadership ofYusof Rawa.[238] Mahathir sought to appeal to religious voters by establishing institutions such as theInternational Islamic University of Malaysia (IIUM) to promote Islamic education within a framework overseen by the government.[239][238]
As part of his efforts to moderate Islamist influence, Mahathir successfully drewAnwar Ibrahim, leader of theMalaysian Islamic Youth Movement (ABIM), into UMNO.[240] Mahathir's government also employed repressive measures against more extreme exponents of Islamism. In 1985, theMemali Incident occurred, resulting in a confrontation between police and followers of Islamist preacher Ibrahim Mahmud, known as Ibrahim Libya, in Kampung Memali,Baling,Kedah. This clash led to 18 deaths, including four police officers.[241]Al-Arqam, a religious sect, was banned in 1994, and its leader,Ashaari Mohammad, was arrested under theInternal Security Act (ISA) due to the movement's deviation from Islamic principles and its perceived potential as a political threat.[242]
Following rising racial tensions and political unrest,Operasi Lalang was launched in 1987. The government detained 119 individuals, including opposition politicians, activists, and intellectuals, under theInternal Security Act (ISA).[243] These detentions, carried out without trial, were criticized by human rights groups.[243]
Mahathir's party, theUnited Malays National Organisation (UMNO), entered acrisis in 1987. After Mahathir narrowly defeatedTengku Razaleigh Hamzah in the1987 UMNO presidential election, Razaleigh's supporters claimed irregularities in the voting process and filed a lawsuit.[244] In 1988, theHigh Court declared UMNO to be an unlawful society due to unregistered branches that violated theSocieties Act 1966.[245][244] This ruling effectively dissolved UMNO, leaving the party without legal status and creating uncertainty in its leadership. In response, Mahathir formed a new party,UMNO Baru (New UMNO), which most UMNO members joined. The reconstituted party later adopted the original name, UMNO. The situation escalated into aconstitutional crisis when Mahathir's administration sought to assert greater control over the judiciary, suspendingSalleh Abas, theLord President of theSupreme Court, along with several senior judges, following Salleh's criticism of the government's attempts to influence judicial matters.[245][246]
Mahathir also worked to resolve thelong-standing insurgency by theMalayan Communist Party (MCP). Building onMalaysia's bilateral relations withChina established in 1974, the Malaysian government encouraged Chinese leaders, includingDeng Xiaoping, to influence the MCP to lay down their arms.[247] By 1988, the MCP, weakened by diminishing support and thecollapse of the communist bloc, agreed to peace negotiations mediated byThailand.[247][248] The talks culminated in theHat Yai Peace Accord, signed on 2 December 1989, which required the MCP to cease militant activities, disband armed units, and pledge loyalty to theYang di-Pertuan Agong.[249]
The conclusion of the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1990 led Mahathir to introduceVision 2020, aiming to transform Malaysia into a fully developed nation by the year 2020. Achieving this objective required an average economic growth rate of seven percent per annum.[250][251] The New Economic Policy (NEP) was succeeded by theNational Development Policy (NDP) in 1991, which expanded certain government programs to include non-Bumiputera ethnic groups. By 1995, the NDP had contributed to poverty reduction, with fewer than nine percent of Malaysians living in poverty, and it had helped to narrow income inequality.[252] The administration also reduced corporate taxes and liberalized financial regulations, attracting foreign investment and boosting economic growth rates to over nine percent annually until 1997.[253]
Mahathir's secondconstitutional amendment in 1993 further curtailed royal privileges by removing the legal immunity of the royal family, allowing them to be prosecuted in a special court. This amendment reinforced the government's stance that all citizens, including royalty, should be subject to the rule of law.[254]
Throughout the 1990s, Mahathir prioritized large-scale infrastructure projects. Among them was the development of theMultimedia Super Corridor, aimed at establishing Malaysia as a center forinformation technology.[255] Other key projects included the creation ofPutrajaya as the administrative capital and the establishment of theFormula One Grand Prix inSepang. Among the more controversial was theBakun Dam inSarawak, a hydroelectric project intended to supply electricity across theSouth China Sea to Peninsular Malaysia. However, its construction was halted during the1997 Asian financial crisis.[256][255] ThePetronas Twin Towers, completed in 1996, became an iconic symbol of Malaysia's rapid modernization. Mahathir envisioned the towers and the surroundingKuala Lumpur City Centre (KLCC) as a global business hub, transforming Kuala Lumpur's skyline.[257]
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The1997 Asian financial crisis significantly impacted Malaysia, with the Malaysian ringgit depreciating, foreign investment declining, and the stock market index dropping by over 75%. Initially followingInternational Monetary Fund (IMF) recommendations, the government implemented spending cuts and raised interest rates, exacerbating economic strain. In 1998, Mahathir shifted policies by increasing government spending and pegging the ringgit to the US dollar, allowing Malaysia to recover faster than some neighboring countries.[258]
The year 1998 also marked the dismissal of Deputy Prime MinisterAnwar Ibrahim by Mahathir, leading to theReformasi movement, which advocated for political reform and an end to corruption. Anwar's subsequent arrest andtrial on charges of sodomy attracted widespread attention and criticism from international human rights organizations and fueled mass protests inKuala Lumpur.[259][260][261][262]
The Reformasi movement led to the formation of the National Justice Party (KeADILan), the predecessor to thePeople's Justice Party (PKR), in 1999, strengthening the opposition.[263] The government responded with arrests and media restrictions, including curbs onPAS'sHarakah newspaper.[264] In the1999 Malaysian general election,Barisan Nasional retained a two-thirds majority, though PAS andKeADILan made gains under theAlternative Front (BA) coalition.[265][266]
In February 2003, Malaysia hosted the 13thNon-Aligned Movement Summit, where Mahathir condemned theUnited States'plans to invadeIraq as a violation of international law and urged NAM members to oppose unilateral military actions.[267][268]
Although he had announced his retirement in June 2002 and namedAbdullah Ahmad Badawi as his successor, Mahathir officially stepped down in October 2003 after over 22 years in office, making him the world's longest-serving elected leader at the time.[269][270][271]
Abdullah Ahmad Badawi was sworn in asMalaysia's fifth prime minister on 31 October 2003, beginning his term with a pledge to combat corruption by strengthening anti-corruption agencies, expanding public channels for reporting corruption, and improving transparency in the award of government contracts.[272] He promotedIslam Hadhari, an approach to Islam emphasizing compatibility between Islamic principles and economic and technological development.[273] Aligning with this approach, his administration introduced the j-QAF programme in 2004 to strengthen Islamic education in schools.[274] In the same year, he also introduced theNational Integrity Plan andMalaysian Integrity Institute to foster ethical governance.[272][275] Additionally, Abdullah's government sought to improveaccess to higher education and bolster Malaysia's standing as a regional educational hub, expanding funding and infrastructure fortertiary education.[276]
Following the2004 general election, Abdullah led the Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition to a major victory, securing over 90% of parliamentary seats.[277][278] Later that year, theIndian Ocean tsunamiaffected parts of Malaysia, particularly Penang and Kedah, prompting Abdullah's administration to coordinate relief efforts and establish a tsunami warning system to improve disaster preparedness.[279][280][281] In 2005, Malaysia hosted theinaugural East Asia Summit under Abdullah's leadership, aiming to enhance cooperation amongSoutheast Asian nations and major global powers.[282]
To advance economic development, Abdullah launched theSpecial Task Force to Facilitate Business (PEMUDAH) in 2007 to streamline business processes and reduce bureaucratic inefficiencies.[283] Between 2006 and 2008, his administration introduced five economic corridors—Iskandar Malaysia,Northern Corridor Economic Region (NCER),East Coast Economic Region (ECER),Sabah Development Corridor (SDC), andSarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE)—to drive regional development.[284][285][286][287][288]
The government sought to transition into a value-chain economy while maintaining its manufacturing base by revitalizingMalaysia's agriculture sector to enhancefood security, incorporating modernagrotechnology and implementing a national food security plan in 2008 amid theworld food price crisis at the time.[289][290][291][292][293] Abdullah also faced criticism over rising petrol and electricity costs linked to subsidy restructuring, as these changes were seen as potentially undermining Malaysia's traditional advantage as an exporter.[294]
Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor became Malaysia's first astronaut on 10 October 2007, travelling aboard the RussianSoyuz TMA-11, a milestone for Malaysia'sspace exploration program.[295] That same year, two major anti-government rallies took place. The firstBersih Rally on 10 November in Kuala Lumpur called forelectoral reform amid corruption allegations and criticisms of a system favouring Barisan Nasional.[296] Later that month, on 25 November, theHINDRAF rally organised by theHindu Rights Action Force (HINDRAF) protested perceived ethnic discrimination policies.[297] The government subsequently banned HINDRAF in October 2008, labelling it a security threat.[298]
The2008 financial crisis led to reduced demand for Malaysian exports such as electronics, palm oil, and rubber, causing the country's GDP growth to slow significantly and contract in early 2009 before beginning a gradual recovery.[299] To mitigate the impact, Abdullah's government introduced two stimulus packages totalling approximately RM67 billion, supporting domestic spending, infrastructure projects, and vulnerable sectors.[300][301] These measures, alongside Malaysia's diversified economy, contributed to a relatively swift recovery.[302] In 2009, his administration established theMalaysian Anti-Corruption Commission (MACC), replacing the Anti-Corruption Agency (ACA), to enhance anti-corruption efforts.[303] That same year, his administration also established the Judicial Appointments Commission (JAC) to improve transparency in judicial appointments, strengthening judicial independence.[304][305]
In the2008 general election, Barisan Nasional lost its two-thirds majority for the first time since 1969, a result of thepolitical tsunami brought about by the2008 Malaysian Opposition Wave, which signaled a significant decline in public support.[306] Mounting criticism over unmet anti-corruption promises and perceived ineffective leadership led Abdullah to announce his resignation in October 2008, with his departure finalised in April 2009 whenNajib Razak took office as his successor.[307][308]
Najib Razak was sworn in asMalaysia's sixth prime minister on 3 April 2009. Early in his tenure, he introduced the1Malaysia campaign, a national unity initiative aimed at fostering ethnic harmony, service efficiency, and equitable opportunities.[309][310] The concept expanded into a public service brand covering various social and economic policies aimed at unifying Malaysia's multicultural society.
On 15 September 2011, Najib announced plans to repeal theInternal Security Act 1960 (ISA), which had been criticised for allowing indefinite detention without trial. It was replaced by theSecurity Offences (Special Measures) Act 2012 (SOSMA), which came into effect on 31 July 2012.[311][312] However, critics argued that SOSMA was misused to silence dissenting voices, with several activists detained under the law.[313][314]
In early February 2013, anincursion occurred in Lahad Datu when hundreds of militants, some armed, arrived by boats inLahad Datu District, Sabah, Malaysia, fromSimunul Island,Tawi-Tawi, in the southernPhilippines. The group was sent byJamalul Kiram III, a claimant to the throne of theSultanate of Sulu. In response, Malaysian security forces launched a major operation to repel the militants, resulting in a decisive Malaysian victory that concluded the conflict by late March 2013.[315] Following this, theEastern Sabah Security Command (ESSCOM) was established to enhance security along Sabah's eastern coast.[316][317]
In the2013 general election, Najib led the Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition to victory, retaining a majority in Parliament. However, the election was marred by allegations of electoral irregularities, including accusations ofgerrymandering and alleged misuse of government resources. This led to widespread public protests, which demanded electoral reform.[318]
On 8 March 2014,Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 disappeared en route from Kuala Lumpur to Beijing, leading to one of the largest and most costly search efforts in aviation history.[319] Four months later, on 17 July 2014,Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 was shot down by asurface-to-air missile overEastern Ukraine while flying over territory controlled byRussian-backed militants, resulting in the deaths of all 298 passengers and crew on board.[320][321]
On 1 April 2015, Najib's administration introduced acontroversial 6% Goods and Services Tax (GST) on most goods and services to expand Malaysia's tax base. The GST was widely unpopular, with many Malaysians expressing concerns over rising living costs.[322][323] Later that year, Najib's administration was engulfed inscandal when Najib and other officials were implicated in a multibillion-dollarembezzlement andmoney-laundering scheme involving1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB), a state-owned investment fund allegedly masterminded byLow Taek Jho. This triggered widespread calls and protests from Malaysians, including opposition parties, demanding Najib's resignation.[324][325] These protests culminated in theMalaysian Citizens' Declaration, a declaration from a coalition of political and civil leaders calling for Najib's removal from office.[326]
From 2011 to 2016, theBersih movement held several large rallies calling for electoral reform, transparency, and accountability in governance. The Najib administration's response included arrests of activists and restrictions on media coverage, which garnered both domestic and international scrutiny.[327] Amid growing dissent, Najib removed his then-deputy,Muhyiddin Yassin, suspended several newspapers, and enacted theNational Security Council Act 2016, granting unprecedented powers to the prime minister.[328][329] Additionally, living costs surged due to subsidy cuts, and theMalaysian ringgit experienced a sharp decline.[330]
In 2017,diplomatic tensions flared between Malaysia andNorth Korea after theassassination of Kim Jong-nam in Malaysia, an incident that sparked a major diplomatic row and brought international media attention.[331]
Najib's tenure ended after the2018 general election, in which Barisan Nasional lost its parliamentary majority for the first time in Malaysia's history.[332][333][334]
Mahathir Mohamad was sworn in as the seventhPrime Minister after winning theelection on 10 May 2018. A number of issues contributed toNajib Razak's defeat, including the ongoing1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB) scandal, the 6% Goods and Services Tax, and the rising cost of living.[335]
Mahathir promised to "restore therule of law" and conduct elaborate and transparent investigations into the1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal.[336][337][338]
Anwar Ibrahim was given a fullroyal pardon and was released from prison on 16 May 2018. He was designated to take over the reins from Prime MinisterMahathir Mohamad as planned and agreed by the coalition before GE14.[339][340]
The unpopular tax was reduced to 0% on 1 June 2018. The government under Mahathir tabled the first reading Bill to repeal GST inParliament on 31 July 2018.[341][342] GST was successfully replaced with Sales Tax and Service Tax starting 1 September 2018.[343]
Mahathir's administration promised to review allBelt and Road Initiative projects in Malaysia that were initiated by the previous government. He characterised these as "unequal treaties" and said some were linked to misappropriated funds from the 1MDB scandal. The government suspended work on theEast Coast Rail Link and continued it after terms had been renegotiated.[344][345] Mahathir cancelled approximately $2.8 billion worth of deals withChina Petroleum Pipeline Bureau, stating that Malaysia would not be able to repay its obligations to China.[346][347]
Mahathir was supportive of the2018–19 Korean peace process and announced that Malaysia would reopen its embassy in North Korea and resume relations.[348][349][350]
On 28 September 2018, Mahathir addressed theUnited Nations General Assembly, stating that his government would promise to ratify theInternational Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD). However, after weeks of receiving racially and religiously charged demonstrations against the convention, particularly fromBumiputras, the Pakatan Harapan government chose not to accede to the ICERD on 23 November 2018.[351]
Mahathir announced theShared Prosperity Vision 2030 in October 2019, which aimed to increase the incomes of all ethnic groups, focus more on the technology sector, and for Malaysia to become ahigh-income country by 2030.[352][353] Malaysia'sfreedom of the press improved slightly under Mahathir's tenure, and the country's rank rose in thePress Freedom Index.[354]
Political infighting within the Pakatan Harapan coalition, as well as the uncertainty of the date of the transition of power to his designated successor, Anwar Ibrahim, soon culminated in apolitical crisis known as the Sheraton Move in February 2020.[355]
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On 1 March 2020, a week after the country was thrown into apolitical crisis,Muhyiddin Yassin was appointed as the eighthPrime Minister by theYang di-Pertuan Agong, following the abrupt resignation of Mahathir Mohamad.[22] The fallen government was replaced by the newPerikatan Nasional (PN) coalition government, led byBERSATU leader Muhyiddin.
During his administration,COVID-19 spread throughout the nation. In response, Muhyiddin implemented theMalaysian movement control order (MCO) on 18 March 2020.[356][357]
On 28 July 2020, theHigh Court convicted former Prime MinisterNajib Razak ofabuse of power,money laundering andcriminal breach of trust, becoming the first Prime Minister of Malaysia to be convicted of corruption.[358][359] After failing several appeals, he enteredKajang Prison on August 23, 2022, to serve his sentence.[360]
In mid-January 2021, theYang di-Pertuan Agong declared anational state of emergency until at least 1 August in response to the COVID-19 crisis and political infighting. Parliament and elections were suspended while the Malaysian government was empowered to introduce laws without approval.[361][362]
Muhyiddin commencedthe country's vaccination programme against COVID-19 in late February 2021.[363]
On 19 March 2021,North Korea announced theseverance of diplomatic ties with Malaysia, after theKuala Lumpur High Court rejected North Korean businessman Mun Chol Myong's appeal from extradition to the United States.[364][365]
Muhyiddin officially resigned as prime minister on August 16, 2021, after losing the majority in parliament support due to the country's political crisis, as well as calls for his resignation due toeconomic stagnation and the government's failure to prevent COVID-19infections anddeaths.[366] He was afterwards appointed back ascaretaker prime minister by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong until a replacement can be selected.[367][368]
Ismail Sabri Yaakob was sworn in as the ninthPrime Minister on August 21, 2021.[369][370] During his inaugural speech as prime minister on 22 August 2021, Ismail Sabri introduced theKeluarga Malaysia idea.[371][372][373] During his tenure, he lifted theMovement Control Order (MCO) following the expansion of thevaccination programme and oversaw theTwelfth Malaysia Plan.[374][375]
TheConstitution (Amendment) Act 2022 was passed, restoring Sabah and Sarawak as equal partners to Peninsular Malaysia per theMalaysia Agreement of 1963, effective from 11 February 2022.[376][377][378][379][380] Later in the same year, a constitutional amendment prohibiting members of parliament fromswitching political parties was also passed.[381] Several UMNO lawmakers called for asnap election before the end of 2022 to resolve ongoing infighting in the party and obtain a stronger mandate.[382] This led to an earliergeneral election in November 2022, which resulted in ahung parliament, the first federal election to have such a result in the nation's history.[383][26]
Anwar Ibrahim, the chairman ofPakatan Harapan (PH), was appointed and sworn in as the 10thPrime Minister of Malaysia on 24 November 2022 by theYang di-Pertuan Agong, after securing support for agrand coalition government, thereby ending thenation's political crisis.[384][385] He launched theMalaysia Madani concept as a national policy on January 19, 2023, in Putrajaya which replaced theKeluarga Malaysia concept from the previous administration of Ismail Sabri Yaakob.[386][387]
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On June 18, 2024, Anwar announced Malaysia's intention to joinBRICS, emphasizing that this decision would not impact domestic politics.[388][389] Malaysia officially submitted its application in July 2024. Anwar attended the 9thEastern Economic Forum inVladivostok,Russia, in September, whereRussian PresidentVladimir Putin invited Malaysia to the upcoming BRICS Summit.[390][391] On October 24, 2024, Malaysia, represented byEconomy MinisterRafizi Ramli, attended the16th BRICS Summit and formally attained BRICS partner country status on January 1, 2025, enhancing its economic and trade collaborations with BRICS nations.[392][393][394]
In April 2025, Malaysia hostedChinese PresidentXi Jinping for astate visit, his first to the country in 12 years. The two nations signed 31 agreements across sectors such as trade, infrastructure, technology, and cultural exchange, and issued a joint declaration to strengthenbilateral relations.[395][396][397][398]
In case of Santubong, its association with T'ang and Sung porcelain would necessary provide a date of about 8th – 13th century A.D.
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{{cite book}}:|website= ignored (help)Carena (for Carena), deep in the bight, refers to Sarawak, the Kuching area, where there is clear archaeological evidence of an ancient trade center just inland from Santubong.
... but Castanheda lists five great seaports that he says were known to the Portuguese. In his transcriptions they are called "Moduro" (Marudu?), "Cerava" (Sarawak?), "Laue" (Lawai), "Tanjapura" (Tanjungpura), and "Borneo" (Brunei) from which the island derives its name.
This in turn helped Captain Henry Burney conclude a treaty of commerce with Thailand in June 1826.
Works related toFederation of Malaya Agreement at WikisourceOn 24 Apr Lee Kuan Yew informed Selkirk that on the previous day he had spoken to the Tunku for the first time about the Grand Design.
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