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The history of theKyrgyz people and the land now calledKyrgyzstan goes back more than 3,000 years. Although geographically isolated by its mountainous location, it had an important role as part of the historicalSilk Road trade route.Turkicnomads, who trace their ancestry to many Turkic states such as theFirst andSecond Turkic Khaganates, have inhabited the country throughout its history. In the 13th century, Kyrgyzstan was conquered by theMongols; subsequently it regained independence but was invaded byKalmyks,Manchus, andUzbeks. In 1876, it became part of theRussian Empire, remaining in theUSSR as the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic after theRussian Revolution. FollowingMikhail Gorbachev's democratic reforms in the USSR, in 1990 pro-independence candidateAskar Akayev was elected president of the SSR. On 31 August 1991, Kyrgyzstan declared independence from Moscow, and a democratic government was subsequently established.
Stone implements found in theTian Shan mountains indicate the presence of early humans in what is nowKyrgyzstan as many as 200,000 to 300,000 years ago. The first written records of a civilization in the area occupied by Kyrgyzstan appear in Chinese chronicles beginning about 2000 BC.[citation needed]
TheYenisei Kirghiz lived in the upperYenisey River valley, centralSiberia. Chinese sources of the 2nd century BC and Muslim sources of the 7th–12th centuries AD describe the Kyrgyz as red-haired with fair complexion and green (blue) eyes. First appearing in ChineseRecords of the Grand Historian as Gekun orJiankun (鬲昆 or 隔昆), and later as part of theTiele tribes, they came under the rule of theGöktürks andUyghurs.[citation needed]The early Kyrgyz state reached its greatest expansion after defeating theUyghur Khaganate in 840 AD. Then Kyrgyz quickly moved as far as theTian Shan range and maintained their dominance over this territory for about 200 years. In the 12th century, however, the Kyrgyz domination had shrunk to theAltay Range and theSayan Mountains as a result of the risingMongol expansion. With the rise of theMongol Empire in the 13th century, the Kyrgyz migrated south.Plano Carpin, an envoy of thePapal states, andWilliam Rubruck, an envoy ofFrance, all wrote about their life under the Mongols. VariousTurkic peoples ruled them until 1685, when they came under the control of theOirats (Dzungars).[citation needed]
63% of the modern Kyrgyz men carryHaplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA), comparable to the prevalence of the haplogroup among theTajiks (64%).[2][3]
The first Turks to form a state in the territory of Central Asia (including Kyrgyzstan) wereGöktürks or Kök-Türks. Known in medieval Chinese sources as Tujue (突厥 tú jué).[citation needed] the Göktürks under the leadership ofBumin/Tuman Khan/Khaghan (d. 552) ofAshina tribe or dynasty and his sons established the first known Turkic state in 551 in the general area of territory that had earlier been occupied by the Xiongnu, and expanded rapidly to rule wide territories in Central Asia. The Göktürks split into two rivalKhanates, of which the western one disintegrated in 744.[citation needed]
The first kingdom to emerge from theGöktürk Khaganate was the BuddhistUyghur Empire that flourished in the territory encompassing most of Central Asia from 744 to 840.
After the Uyghur empire disintegrated, a branch of the Uyghurs migrated to oasis settlements in theTarim Basin andGansu, such asGaochang (Karakhoja) andHami City (Kumul), and set up a confederation of decentralized Buddhist states called Kara-Khoja. Others, mainly closely related to the Uyghurs (theKarluks), occupying the western Tarim Basin,Ferghana Valley,Jungaria and parts of modernKazakhstan bordering the Muslim Turco-TajikKhwarazm Sultanate, converted to Islam no later than the 10th century and built a federation with Muslim institutions called Kara-Khanlik, whose princely dynasties are calledKarakhanids by most historians. Its capital,Balasagun flourished as a cultural and economic centre.[citation needed]
The IslamizedKarluk princely clan, the Balasagunlu Ashinalar (or theKarakhanids) gravitated toward the Persian Islamic cultural zone after their political autonomy and suzerainty over Central Asia was secured during the 9–10th century.[citation needed]
As they became increasinglyPersianized they settled in the more Indo-Iranian sedentary centers such asKashgaria, and became detached from the nomadic traditions of fellowKarluks, many of whom retained cultural elements of the Uyghur Khanate.[citation needed]
The principality was significantly weakened by the early 12th century and the territory of modern Kyrgyzstan was conquered by theMongolicKhitan people. TheKara-Khitan Khanate (simplified Chinese:西辽; traditional Chinese:西遼; pinyin:Xī Liáo; 1124–1218), also known as Western Liao, was established byYelü Dashi (耶律大石) who led around 100,000 Khitan remnants after escaping theJurchen conquest of their native country, the Khitan dynasty.[citation needed]
The Khitay conquest of Central Asia can thus be seen as an internecine struggle within the Karluk nomadic tribe, played out as dynastic conflict between the conquering Buddhist Khitay elites and the defending Kara-Khanid princes. This conflict resulted in the subjugation of the latter by the former and in the subjugation of theMuslimKarluks by their kin.[citation needed]
TheMongol invasion of Central Asia in the 13th century devastated the territory of Kyrgyzstan, costing its people their independence and written language. The son of Genghis Khan, Juche, conquered the Kyrgyz tribes of the Yenisey region, who by this time had become disunited. At the same time, the area of present-day Kyrgyzstan was an essential link in theSilk Road, as attested by severalChurch of the East gravestones. For the next 200 years, the Kyrgyz remained under theGolden Horde,Chagatai Khanate and theOirats as well asDzungars that succeeded that regime. Freedom was regained in 1510, but Kyrgyz tribes were overrun in the seventeenth century by the Kalmyks, in the mid-eighteenth century by theManchus, and in the early nineteenth century by theUzbeks.
TheMongol Empire (1206-1294/1368) was the largest contiguous empire and the second-largest empire overall in world history. It emerged from the unification of Mongol and Turkic tribes in modern-dayMongolia, and grew through invasion, afterGenghis Khan had been proclaimed ruler of all Mongols in 1206. The Mongol Empire began to split following the succession war in 1260–1264, with theGolden Horde and theChagatai Khanate being de facto independent and refusing to acceptKublai Khan (1260–1294) as Khagan. By Kublai's death, the Mongol Empire had already fractured into four separate khanates or empires, each pursuing its interests and objectives. The kagans of theYuan dynasty assumed the role of Chinese emperors and fixed their capital at Khanbaliq (modern-dayBeijing) from the old Mongol capitalKarakorum. Although other khanates accepted them as their titular suzerains and sent tributes and some support after the peace treaty in 1304, the three western khanates were virtually independent and continued developing as sovereign states.
Eventually the Mongol rule in China fell in 1368 and was replaced by theMing dynasty though the GenghisidBorjigin dynasty survived in Mongolia until the 17th century.Temujin, the son of a Mongol chieftain, who suffered a difficult childhood, united the nomadic, previously ever-rivaling Mongol-Turkic tribes under his rule through political manipulation and military might. In 1203–1205, the Mongols under Temujin destroyed all the remaining rival tribes (Kereyd, Merkits) and brought them under his sway. In 1206, Temujin was crowned as the Kagan of the Yekhe Mongol Ulus (Great Mongol Nation) at a Kurultai (general assembly) and assumed the title "Chingis Khan" (or more commonly known as "Genghis Khan" probably meaning Universal ruler) instead of the old tribal tities such as Gur Khan or Tayang Khan. This event essentially marked the start of the Mongol Empire under the leadership of Genghis Khan (1206–1227). Genghis Khan appointed his loyal friends as the heads of army units and households. He also divided his nation intoarbans (each with 10 people),zuuns (100),myangans (1000) andtumens (10,000) of decimal organization.
Genghis Khan rewarded those loyal to him and placed them in high positions. He proclaimed new law of the empire Yassa and codified everything related to the nomads' everyday life and political affairs at the time. For example, he forbade hunting animals during breeding time, selling women, stealing other's properties, and fighting between the Mongols by his law. He quickly came into conflict with theJin dynasty of theJurchens and theWestern Xia of theTanguts in northern China. Under the provocation of the MuslimKhwarezmid Empire, he moved into Central Asia as well, devastatingTransoxiana and easternPersia, and then raiding intoKievan Rus' and theCaucasus. Before his death, Genghis divided his empire among his sons and immediate family, but as custom made clear, it remained the joint property of the entire imperial family who, along with the Mongol aristocracy, constituted the ruling class.
In 1207 Kyrgyz possessions on theYenisei, inTuva andAltai were entered into part of Mongol Empire. But in 1273–1293 Kyrgyz rulers restored their independence after repeated rebellions Kyrgyz tribes against Mongols power in 1217, 1218, 1273–1280. In 1218 the eastTurkestan andSemirechie were conquered by Mongols. His third son,Ugedei, inherited Genghis Khan's empire. The designated Great Khan personally controlled the lands east ofLake Balkhash as far as Mongolia. Tolui, the youngest, the keeper of the hearth, was granted the northern Mongolian homeland.Chagatai, the second son, received Transoxania, between theAmur-Darya andSyr-Darya rivers in modernUzbekistan, and the area aroundKashgar. He made his capital atAlmalik near Kulja in northwestern China. Apart from problems of lineage and inheritance, the Mongol Empire was endangered by the great cultural and ethnic divide between the Mongols themselves and their mostly Islamic Turkic subjects. * In 1269, during the common meeting of khans of Chagatai and Ugedei uluses, Khaidu (1269- 1301) was officially chosen to be a Khan. His lands extended from Altai to Amur-Darya, including the territory of what is now Kyrgyzstan and Eastern Turkestan (an extensive region of central Asia betweenSiberia in the north andTibet, India, Afghanistan, and Iran in the south: formerły divided into West (Russian) Turkestan (also calledSoviet Central Asia), comprising present-dayTurkmenistan,Uzbekistan,Tajikistan, andKyrgyzstan and the South part ofKazakhstan, and East Turkestan consisting of theXinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (Chinese).
The Kyrgyz in the north were never totally subjugated byTimurlane. However, his conquests and influence had a unifying role in the southern region.[4] In the 15th century, a tribe of Uzbeks, originally from the Golden horde, arrived in this region.
During the 19th century, the Northern Kyrgyz tribes were in a confederation ruled by one khan, the first khan,Ormon Khan, initiated the formation of a state called theKara-Kyrgyz Khanate, governing theKyrgyz people independently from their former overlord, theKokands.
After Ormon's death, the khanate was ruled by his sonUmetaaly. In a hostile situation against the expanding Russian Empire, the khanate was annexed in 1867.
In 1775,Atake Tynay Biy Uulu, one of the leaders ofSarybagysh tribe, established first diplomatic ties with theRussian Empire by sending his envoys toCatherine the Great inSaint Petersburg.[5] In the early 19th century, the territory of Kyrgyzstan came under the control of theKhanate of Kokand, but the territory was occupied and formally annexed by theRussian Empire in 1876. The Russian takeover instigated numerous revolts againsttsarist authority, and many Kyrgyz opted to move into thePamir Mountains and intoAfghanistan. The suppression of the 1916 rebellion in Central Asia, triggered by the Russian imposition of the military draft on the Kyrgyz and other Central Asian peoples, caused many Kyrgyz to flee to China.
Soviet power was initially established in the region in 1918, and in 1924, theKara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast was created within theRussian SFSR. (The term Kara-Kyrgyz was used until the mid-1920s by the Russians to distinguish them from the Kazakhs, who were also referred to as Kyrgyz.) In 1926, it became theKirghiz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. On 5 December 1936, theKirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) was established as a Union Republic of theUSSR.
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During the 1920s, Kyrgyzstan saw considerable cultural, educational, and social change. Economic and social development also was notable.Literacy increased, and a standard literary language was introduced. TheKyrgyz language belongs to the Kipchak Turkic group of languages. In 1924, anArabic-basedKyrgyz alphabet was introduced, which was replaced byLatin script in 1928. In 1941Cyrillic script was adopted. Many aspects of the Kyrgyz national culture were retained despite suppression of nationalist activity underJoseph Stalin, who controlled the Soviet Union from the late 1920s until 1953.
Modern Kyrgyz religious affiliation is eclectically Muslim for a majority of the population. Typical Kyrgyz families vary in their devotion to Islam.
Russian and Kyrgyz cultures differ about family, religious identity, and social structure. Kyrgyzstan is a country in transition. The current social dilemma is one that has emerged from the controlling body mainly relying on classic Russian ethnicities, to Kyrgyz or Turkic ethnic groups shaping and forming the infrastructure of Kyrgyzstan. This has resulted in a measurable degree of instability and chaos associated with a social transition.
The ancestral Kyrgyz social structure was dominated by nomadic traditions, governing political philosophies, and socialization. As classical Russian ethnic groups were injected into the Soviet Republic of Kyrgyzstan, the urbanization process began and was mainly authored by the Russian communities placed within the Soviet Republic, mostly by policies created by the communist party. It is unclear why these policies were created; it is only clear that they forced Russians of certain descent to populate the Republic.
On 11 March 1985Mikhail Gorbachev was chosen by thePolitburo as the newGeneral Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev immediately launched his new liberalizing policies ofglasnost andperestroika, although they had little immediate impact on the political climate in Kyrgyzstan. On 2 November 1985 Gorbachev replacedTurdakun Usubaliyev the First Secretary of theCommunist Party of Kirghizia, who had been in power for 24 years, withAbsamat Masaliyev. The republic's press was permitted to adopt a more liberal stance and to establish a new publication,Literaturny Kyrgyzstan, by the Union of Writers. Unofficial political groups were forbidden, but several groups that emerged in 1989 to deal with an acute housing crisis were permitted to function.
Gorbachev's policy of separating Party and State began to impact at the Soviet Republic level in early 1991 when eachSSR held competitive elections to their respective legislative Supreme Soviets, shortly after the CPSU had given up its 'leading role'. This meant that real local power moved from the position of Communist Party Leader to that of Chairman of the Supreme Soviet, the official Head of State of the SSR. Between January and April 1990, each of the Communist Party leaders of the five states ofSoviet Central Asia assumed the position of Chairman of the Supreme Soviet in their respective SSRs without any difficulty from the still weak opposition forces in the region.
In Kirghizia the1990 elections were held on 25 February, with a second round on 7 April. As the Communists were the only political party contesting the elections it is not surprising that they received 90% of the vote.Absamat Masaliyev the Communist leader was voted by the new Parliament asChairman of the Supreme Soviet of Kirghizia on 10 April 1990.
However events quickly began to slip from the Communists control. On 1 May 1990 the opposition groups held their first big demonstration in Frunze in competition with the officially sanctioned May Day celebrations,[6] and on 25–26 May 1990 the opposition groups formed theKyrgyzstan Democratic Movement as a bloc of several anti-Communist political parties, movements and nongovernment organizations. Then on 4 June 1990, ethnic tensions betweenUzbeks and Kyrgyz surfaced in an area of theOsh Region where Uzbeks form a majority of the population.Violent confrontations ensued, and a state of emergency and curfew were introduced.[7] Order was not restored until August 1990.
TheKyrgyzstan Democratic Movement swiftly developed into a significant political force with growing support in parliament. On 27 October 1990 in an upset victory,Askar Akayev, the president of the KyrgyzAcademy of Sciences and reformist Communist Party member, was elected to the newly created presidency defeating Communist Party leaderAbsamat Masaliyev. Kirghizia was the only one of the five states ofSoviet Central Asia that voted their established Communist leadership out of power in 1990.
On 15 December 1990, the Supreme Soviet voted to change the republic's name to the Republic of Kyrgyzstan. In January 1991, Akayev introduced new government structures and appointed a government consisting mainly of younger, reform-oriented politicians. On 5 February 1991, the capital's name, Frunze, was changed toBishkek.
Despite these moves toward independence, economic realities seemed to work against secession from theSoviet Union In a referendum on the preservation of the USSR, in March 1991, 88.7% of the voters approved a proposal to remain part of the union as a "renewed federation."
On 19 August 1991, when theState Emergency Committee assumed power inMoscow, there was an attempt to depose Akayev in Kyrgyzstan. After thecoup collapsed the following week, Akayev and Vice PresidentGerman Kuznetsov announced their resignations from theCommunist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), and the entire politburo and secretariat resigned. This was followed by theSupreme Soviet vote declaring independence from the Soviet Union on 31 August 1991, becoming the first of the five Republics ofSoviet Central Asia to break away.
Kyrgyz was announced as the state language in September 1991. In October 1991, Akayev ran unopposed and was elected President of the new independent republic by direct ballot, receiving 95% of the votes cast.
On 18 October 1991, in theSt. George Hall of the Grand Kremlin PalaceMikhail Gorbachev and the leaders of eight Union republics (excluding Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia and Azerbaijan) signed theTreaty on the Economic Community. According to the text, even before the disintegration of the Soviet Union and regardless of the fate of the Soviet Union, an economic community is being created by independent states in order to form a single market and conduct a coordinated economic policy as an essential condition for overcoming the crisis, preserving a single currency and free movement of goods and services. The treaty was signed by the heads of Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and the president of the Union of Soviet Socialist RepublicsMikhail Gorbachev, but was not ratified and implemented.[8][9][10]
Post-Soviet countries have signed aseries of treaties and agreements to settle the legacy of the former Soviet Union multilaterally and bilaterally.
On 21 December 1991, Kyrgyzstan formally entered the newCommonwealth of Independent States (CIS).
As in many former Soviet republics, after Kyrgyzstan regained independence in August 1991 many individuals, organizations, and political parties sought to reestablish (and, to a certain extent, to create from scratch) a Kyrgyz national cultural identity; often one that included a backlash against Russians.
In 1993, allegations of corruption against Akayev's closest political associates blossomed into a major scandal. One of those accused of improprieties was Prime MinisterTursunbek Chyngyshev, who was dismissed for ethical reasons in December. Following Chyngyshev's dismissal, Akayev dismissed the government and called upon the last communist premier,Apas Djumagulov, to form a new one. In January 1994, Akayev initiated areferendum asking for a renewed mandate to complete his term of office. He received 96.2% of the vote.
A newconstitution was passed by the parliament in May 1993 and the Republic of Kyrgyzstan was renamed the Kyrgyz Republic. In 1994, however, the parliament failed to produce a quorum for its last scheduled session prior to the expiration of its term in February 1995. President Akayev was widely accused of having manipulated a boycott by a majority of the parliamentarians. Akayev, in turn, asserted that the communists had caused a political crisis by preventing the legislature from fulfilling its role. Akayev scheduled an October 1994 referendum, overwhelmingly approved by voters, which proposed two amendments to the constitution—one that would allow the constitution to be amended by means of a referendum, and the other creating a new bicameral parliament called theJogorku Kenesh.
Elections for the two legislative chambers—a 35-seat full-time assembly and a 70-seat part-time assembly—were held in February 1995 after campaigns considered remarkably free and open by most international observers, although the election-day proceedings were marred by widespread irregularities. Independent candidates won most of the seats, suggesting that personalities prevailed over ideologies. The new parliament convened its initial session in March 1995. One of its first orders of business was the approval of the precise constitutional language on the role of the legislature.
On 24 December 1995, President Akayev was reelected for another 5-year term with wide support (75% of vote) over two opposing candidates. He used government resources and state-owned media to carry out his campaign. Three (out of six) candidates were de-registered shortly before the election.
A February 1996 referendum—in violation of the constitution and the law on referendums—amended the constitution to give President Akayev more power. Although the changes gave the president the power to dissolve parliament, it also more clearly defined the parliament's powers. Since that time, the parliament has demonstrated real independence from the executive branch.
An October 1998 referendum approved constitutional changes, including increasing the number of deputies in the lower house, reducing the number of deputies in the upper house, providing for 25% of lower house deputies to be elected by party lists, rolling back parliamentary immunity, introducing private property, prohibiting adoption of laws restricting freedom of speech and mass media, and reforming the state budget.
Two rounds of parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2000, and 12 March 2000. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) reported that the elections failed to comply with commitments to free and fair elections and hence were invalid. Questionable judicial proceedings against opposition candidates and parties limited the choice of candidates available to Kyrgyz voters, while state-controlled media only reported favorably on official candidates. Government officials put pressure on independent media outlets that favored the opposition. The presidential election that followed later in 2000 also was marred by irregularities and was not declared free and fair by international observers. In December 2001, through a constitutional amendment, the Russian language was given official status.
The OSCE found that the parliamentary elections held on 27 February and 13 March 2005 failed to comply with commitments to free and fair elections; however, there were improvements over the 2000 elections, notably the use of indelible ink, transparent ballot boxes, and generally good access by election observers.
Sporadic protests against perceived manipulation and fraud during the elections of 27 February 2005, erupted into widespread calls for the government to resign, which started in the southern provinces. On 24, 15 March 000 pro-opposition demonstrators in Bishkek called for the resignation of the President and his regime. Protesters seized the main government building, and Akayev hurriedly fled the country, first to neighboringKazakhstan and then toMoscow. Initially refusing to resign and denouncing the events as a coup, he subsequently resigned his office on 4 April.[11]
Kurmanbek Bakiyev won the10 July ballot for the presidential election with 89% of the vote with a 53% turnout.[12] Bakiyev's term in office was marred by the murder of several prominent politicians,prison riots, economic ills and battles for control of lucrative businesses.[13][14][15][16] In 2006, Bakiyev faced a political crisis as thousands of people participated in a series of protests in Bishkek. He was accused of not following through with his promises to limit presidential power, give more authority to parliament and the prime minister, and eradicate corruption and crime. Bakiyev claimed that the opposition was plotting a coup against him.[17][18]
In April 2007, the opposition held protests demanding Bakiyev's resignation,[19] with a large protest beginning on 11 April in Bishkek. Bakiyev signed constitutional amendments to reduce his own power on 10 April, but the protest went ahead, with protesters saying that they would remain until he resigned.[20] Clashes broke out between protesters and police on 19 April, after which the protests ended.[21]
Bakiyev was re-elected in the2009 presidential election.[22][23] After the re-election in 2009, some people in Kyrgyzstan said that he would now deal with political and economic reform.[24] Others were skeptical. The Eurasian Daily Monitor wrote on 10 September that his style resembled other leaders such asVladimir Putin andNursultan Nazarbayev. However, he lacked resources and Kyrgyz people were anxious about the risk of renewed power shortages and blackouts like in the winter 2008–2009.[24]
During the winter of 2010 Kyrgyzstan has suffered from rolling blackouts and cutoffs occurring regularly while energy prices have risen.[25]
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The arrest of an opposition figure on 6 April 2010 in the town of Talas led opposition supporters to protest.[26] The protestors took control of a governmental building, demanding a new government. Riot police were sent from Bishkek, and managed to temporarily regain control of the building. Later the same day several more opposition figures were arrested, while the government claimed to have regained control of the situation. The following day, however, hundreds of opposition supporters gathered in Bishkek and marched on the government headquarters. Security personnel attempted to disperse the protestors with the use of stun grenades and live rounds, at the cost of dozens of lives. The protests continued, however, resulting in the flight of President Bakiyev to his southern stronghold ofJalal-Abad, and the freeing later the same day of the arrested opposition figures. A new government was formed under opposition leaderRoza Otunbayeva, while Bakiyev remained for several days in southern Kyrgyzstan, before fleeing toBelarus, where he was given asylum byPresident Lukashenko. The new interim government held consultations on a new constitution, intended to increase the powers of the parliament and reduce those of the president. A referendum was held on the resulting document on 27 June 2010, and was approved by over 90% of voters, with a turnout of 72%.[27] Elections were subsequently held on 10 October 2010. These elections resulted in five parties reaching the 5% threshold necessary to enter parliament.[citation needed]
Almazbek Atambayev ran in 2011 to succeedRoza Otunbayeva as President of Kyrgyzstan. Onelection day, 30 October 2011, he won in a landslide, defeatingAdakhan Madumarov from the Butun Kyrgyzstan party and Kamchybek Tashiev from theAta-Zhurt party with 63% of the vote, and with about 60% of the eligible Kyrgyz population voting.[28]
In 2011 soon after becoming president, Atambayev travelled to Turkey and signed an agreement with the Turkish President agreeing to increase trade from $300 million in 2011 to $1 billion by 2015, with Turkey also agreeing to attract Turkish investment to Kyrgyzstan to the amount of $450 million within the next few years.[29]
Atambayev has repeatedly presented himself as a pro-Russian politician. He positively supports Kyrgyzstan's Membership of the Russian ledEurasian Customs Union and secured the withdrawal of the American military base from the country in 2014.[30] He has spoken of the need for closer economic relations with Russia, which temporarily employs about 500,000 citizens of Kyrgyzstan;[31][better source needed] however, he also expressed his wish to achieve greater economic and energy independence from it.[32]
Sooronbay Jeenbekov wassworn in as president on 24 November 2017 at theAla Archa State Residence. In the hours since assuming office, he made his first decree to confer the title ofHero of the Kyrgyz Republic to his predecessor. The following May, he conducted his firstforeign visit after assuming the presidency was to Russia where he met withVladimir Putin. In April 2018, Jeenbekov fired Prime MinisterSapar Isakov and his entire government following a vote of no confidence fromSupreme Council.[33]
In his first year, Jeenbekov participated in 30 international meetings, where he signed a total of 77 bilateral agreements and 414 multilateral documents. That same year, he ordered the foreign ministry to establish diplomatic relations with four foreign countries.[34][35] The draft of a new co-operation agreement with the United States is currently being reconciled.[36]
Since Jeenbekov took power, he has had a somewhat adversarial relationship with former President Atambayev, who strongly backed Jeenbekov against his opponentÖmürbek Babanov during the 2017 election, even referring to comparing himself as an "older brother" to Jeenbekov when referring to their relationship. Despite this, a rift grew between the two politicians as Atambayev became more involved in politics, eventually rising to the Chairmanship of theSocial Democratic Party of Kyrgyzstan, of which Jeenbekov is a member of. While in this post, he criticized Jeenbekov for his handling many controversies and state emergencies, including the Bishkek power plant failure and his refusal to force his brother to resign from parliament. In early April 2018, Jeenbekov dismissed two high-ranking officials in theState Committee for National Security (GKNB) who are considered to be close to Atambayev, which was seen as an apparent jab at Atambayev and his former government.[37] Jeenbekov has on many occasions accused Atambayev of indirectly trying to influence his presidency, saying in November 2018 that he has attempted to turn him into "a puppet leader through some third individuals"[38] Even with the accusations, he denies any type of rivalry with the former president, saying the following month that he "does not consider anyone a rival".[39]
Mass protests began on 5 October 2020 in response to theparliamentary election that was perceived by protestors as unfair. In the early morning of 6 October 2020, the protesters reclaimed control of the Ala-Too Square in central Bishkek.[40] They also managed to seize theWhite House andSupreme Council buildings nearby, throwing paper from windows and setting them on fire,[41] also entering the President's offices. A protestor died and 590 others were injured.[42] Protestors freed former presidentAlmazbek Atambayev and opposition politicianSadyr Japarov from prison.[43][44]
On 6 October, following the protests, the electoral authorities in the country annulled the results of the parliamentary elections.[45] Likely due to pressure from the protest, Prime MinisterKubatbek Boronov resigned, citing parliamentary deputyMyktybek Abdyldayev as the new speaker.[46] Following the resignation of Prime Minister Boronov, former lawmakerSadyr Japarov was appointed to replace him. Opposition parties rejected the legitimacy of Japarov's status and instead put forward their own candidate for prime minister, Tilek Toktogaziyev. Japarov claimed that he was already the "legitimate prime minister" and that he was appointed by "the parliament's majority."[47]
PresidentSooronbay Jeenbekov resigned on 15 October 2020, leading Japarov to declare himself as acting president.[48][49][50] Despite the Kyrgyzstan Constitution stating that the speaker of theSupreme Council should succeed the role,Kanatbek Isaev refused to assume office, resulting in Japarov becoming the acting president.[51][52]
Sadyr Japarov resigned his post of prime minister to run for the presidency in January 2021. He successfully defeatedAdakhan Madumarov in alandslide win and assumed office on 28 January 2021.[53]
Aconstitutional referendum was held in Kyrgyzstan on 11 April 2021. The draft new constitution adopted by the referendum replaces theparliamentary system with apresidential one, with presidents limited to two five year terms instead of a single six-year term.[54]
R1a1 is widely spread across Eurasia. It is found among western Eurasian, southern Asian, central Asian and Siberian populations. This haplogroup is thought to trace the migration patterns of the early Indo-Europeans.
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