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The area ofKarachi (Urdu:کراچی,Sindhi:ڪراچي) inSindh, Pakistan contains a natural harbor and has been strategically used as fishing port by local fishermen belonging toSindhi tribes sinceprehistorical times. Archaeological excavations have uncovered a period going back to theIndus Valley Civilisation, which shows the significance of the city's strategic location since theBronze Age. The port city ofBanbhore was established close to the area which now situates modern-day Karachi, where it served as an important trade hub in the region. Throughout its lifetime, theancient Greeks referred to the port by a variety of names, such asKrokola,Morontobara,Barbarikon (a sea port of the Indo-GreekGreco-Bactrian Kingdom), and asRamya according to some Greek texts.[1] The Arabs knew it as the port ofDebal, from where theUmayyad commanderMuhammad bin Qasim led his conquering forces intoSindh on 712 AD.Lahari Bandar (alternatively, Lari Bandar) succeeded Debal as a major port of theIndus; it was located close toBanbhore in modern-day Karachi. The first modern port city nearManora Island (now Manora Peninsula) was eventually established during theBritish colonial rule in the latter half of the 19th century.
The ancient names of Karachi includeKrokola,Barbarikon,Nawa Nar,Rambagh,Kurruck,Karak Bander,Auranga Bandar,Minnagara, Kalachi,Morontobara, Kalachi-jo-Goth,Banbhore,Debal,Barbarice, andKurrachee.
The LatePaleolithic andMesolithic sites, which were discovered by archaeologists fromKarachi University on theMulri Hills in front of the university campus, constitute as some of the most importantarchaeological findings made inSindh during the last fifty years. The lasthunter-gatherers, who left abundant traces of their passage, repeatedly inhabited the hills. According to surveyal accounts of the surface, up to twenty different spots offlint tools were discovered.[citation needed]
Some archaeological sites from theIndus Valley civilisation periods situated around the District of Karachi includeAllahdino andPir Shah Jurio, whereinfloor tiles of a house have been discovered at the site of Allahdino.
Theancient Greeks recorded the place by many names: Karachi is identified withKrokola, whereAlexander the Great camped in 326 BCE to prepare a fleet forBabylon after his campaign in theIndus Valley;[2]Morontobara, from whence Alexander's admiralNearchus set sail; andBarbarikon, which was a port of theGreco-Bactrian Kingdom.[3]
Debal andBhanbhore (also spelled as Banbore) were the ancient port cities established near the present-day modern city of Karachi. It dates back to theScytho-Parthian era and was later controlled byHindu andBuddhist kingdoms before falling intoUmayyad possession in the 8th century CE. In the 13th century it was subsequently abandoned. Remains of one of the earliest known mosques in the region dating back to 727 AD are still preserved in the city. The 1st century Greek geographerStrabo mentions the export of rice from near present-day Karachi and theGulf of Cambay to Arabia.[4]
According to the Abbasid-era historianAl-Baladhuri, a largeminaret of a temple existed in Debal whose upper portion was knocked down by Ambissa Ibn Ishak and converted into a prison. Simultaneously, the ruined town was also repaired using the stones of minaret.[5]
In AD 711,Muhammad bin Qasim, a commander of theUmayyad dynasty, conqueredSindh andIndus Valley, bringing South Asian societies into contact with Islam, succeeding partly becauseRaja Dahir was a Hindu king that ruled over a Buddhist majority and thatChach of Alor and his kin were regarded as usurpers of the earlier BuddhistRai dynasty[6][7] this view is questioned by those who note the diffuse and blurred nature of Hindu and Buddhist practices in the region,[8] especially that of a royalty to be patrons of both and those who believe that Chach himself may have been a Buddhist.[9][10] The forces of Muhammad bin Qasim defeated Raja Dahir in alliance with theJats and other regional governors.
The Mughal Empire extended its control over various regions of the Indian subcontinent, including present-day Pakistan, during the reign of Emperor Akbar in the late 16th century. In 1592, the Mughals annexed Sindh, bringing areas like Karachi under imperial authority. Their rule introduced centralized administration, land revenue systems, and architectural influences. While urban centers came under stronger Mughal control, many peripheral regions—such as parts of Balochistan—remained semi-autonomous, with local tribes like the Baloch maintaining their influence through periodic alliances and resistance. Mughal control in these regions gradually weakened in the 18th century due to internal decline and external invasions, eventually paving the way for local dynasties and later British colonization.
TheKalhoras established the port Kharak Bundar near Karachi.[2] In 1729, immigrants from thesilting-up port of Kharak relocated to found Karachi near theHub River mouth. Initially, Karachi was a modest settlement, but its trade grew as other ports like Shahbandar and Keti Bandar also silted up.[3][11]According to some legends, Karachi is named after a fisherwoman called Mai Kolachi.[12] The name Karachee was used for the first time in aDutch document from 1742, in which a merchant shipde Ridderkerk is shipwrecked near the original settlement.[13][14]
In 1795, the city came under the control of theTalpur Mirs ofHyderabad[3] and was ruled by them until it was occupied by theBombay Army under the command ofJohn Keane on 2 February 1839.[15]
After sending a couple of exploratory missions to the area, theBritish East India Company conquered the town on February 3, 1839. The town was later annexed to theBritish Indian Empire whenSindh was conquered byCharles James Napier in theBattle of Miani on February 17, 1843. Karachi was made the capital of Sindh in the 1840s. On Napier's departure it was added along with the rest of Sindh to theBombay Presidency, a move that caused considerable resentment among the native Sindhis. The British realised the importance of the city as a military cantonment and as a port for exporting the produce of theIndus River basin, and rapidly developed its harbour for shipping. The foundations of a city municipal government were laid down and infrastructure development was undertaken. New businesses started opening up and the population of the town began rising rapidly.
The arrival of troops of the Kumpany Bahadur in 1839 spawned the foundation of the new section, the military cantonment. The cantonment formed the basis of the 'white' city where the Indians were not allowed free access. The 'white' town was modeled after English industrial parent-cities where work and residential spaces were separated, as were residential from recreational places.
Karachi was divided into two major poles. The 'black' town in the northwest, now enlarged to accommodate the burgeoning Indian mercantile population, comprised the Old Town, Napier Market and Bunder, while the 'white' town in the southeast comprised the Staff lines, Frere Hall, Masonic lodge, Sindh Club, Governor House and the Collectors Kutchery [Law Court]/kəˈtʃɛri/[citation needed] located in the Civil Lines Quarter. Saddar bazaar area and Empress Market were used by the 'white' population, while the Serai Quarter served the needs of the native population.
The village was later annexed to theBritish Indian Empire when the Sindh was conquered byCharles Napier in 1843. The capital of Sindh was shifted from Hyderabad to Karachi in the 1840s. This led to a turning point in the city's history. In 1847, on Napier's departure the entire Sindh was added to theBombay Presidency. The post of the governor was abolished and that of theChief Commissioner in Sindh established.
The British realized its importance as a military cantonment and a port for the produce of theIndus basin, and rapidly developed its harbor for shipping. The foundation of a city municipal committee was laid down by the Commissioner in Sinde,Bartle Frere and infrastructure development was undertaken. Consequently, new businesses started opening up and the population of the town started rising rapidly. Karachi quickly turned into a city, making true the famous quote by Napier who is known to have said:Would that I could come again to see you in your grandeur!
In 1857, theIndian Mutiny broke out, and the 21st Native Infantry stationed in Karachi declared allegiance to rebels, joining their cause on 10 September 1857. Nevertheless, the British were able to quickly reassert control over Karachi and defeat the uprising. Karachi was known asKhurachee Scinde (i.e. Karachi, Sindh) during the early British colonial rule.
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In 1864, the first telegraphic message was sent from India to England when a direct telegraph connection was laid between Karachi and London.[16] In 1878, the city was connected to the rest of British India by rail. Public building projects such asFrere Hall (1865) and theEmpress Market (1890) were undertaken. In 1876,Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, was born in the city, which by now had become a bustling city with mosques, temples, churches, courthouses, markets, paved streets and a magnificent harbour. By 1899, Karachi had become the largest wheat exporting port in the east.[17] The population of the city was about 105,000 inhabitants by the end of the 19th century, with a cosmopolitan mix of Muslims, Hindus, Europeans,Jews,Parsis,Iranians,Lebanese, andGoans. The city faced a huge cholera epidemic in 1899.[18] By around the start of the 20th century, the city faced street congestion, which led to South Asia's firsttramway system being laid down in 1900.
The city remained a small fishing village until the British seized control of the offshore and strategically located atManora Island. Thereafter, authorities of theBritish Raj embarked on a large-scale modernisation of the city in the 19th century with the intention of establishing a major and modern port which could serve as a gateway toPunjab, the western parts of British Raj, andAfghanistan. The city was predominantly Muslim withSindhi andBaloch ethnic groups.Britain's competition with imperial Russia during theGreat Game also heightened the need for a modern port near Central Asia, and so Karachi prospered as a major centre of commerce and industry during the Raj, attracting communities of:Africans,Arabs,Armenians,Catholics fromGoa, Jews,Lebanese,Malays,Konkani people fromMaharashtra,Kuchhi fromKuchh,Gujarat in India, andZoroastrians (also known as Parsees)—in addition to the large number of British businessmen and colonial administrators who established the city's poshest locales, such asClifton. Thismass migration changed the religious and cultural mosaic of Karachi.
British colonialists embarked on a number of public works of sanitation and transportation, such as gravel paved streets, proper drains, street sweepers, and a network of trams and horse-drawn trolleys. Colonial administrators also set up military camps, a European inhabited quarter, and organised marketplaces, of which theEmpress Market is most notable. The city's wealthy elite also endowed the city with a large number of grand edifices, such as the elaborately decorated buildings that house social clubs, known as 'Gymkhanas.' Wealthy businessmen also funded the construction of theJehangir Kothari Parade (a large seaside promenade) and theFrere Hall, in addition to the cinemas, and gambling parlours which dotted the city.
By 1914, Karachi had become the largest grain exporting port of theBritish Empire. In 1924, anaerodrome was built and Karachi became the main airport of entry intoBritish Raj. An airship mast was also built in Karachi in 1927 as part of theImperial Airship Communications scheme, which was later abandoned. In 1936, Sindh was separated from the Bombay Presidency and Karachi was made again the capital of theSindh. In 1947, whenPakistan achieved independence, Karachi had become a bustling metropolitan city with beautiful classical and colonial European styled buildings lining the city's thoroughfares.
As the movement forindependence almost reached its conclusion, the city suffered widespread outbreaks of communal violence between Muslims and Hindus, who were often targeted by the incoming Muslim refugees. In response to the perceived threat of Hindu domination, self-preservation of identity, the province of Sindh became the first province of British India to pass thePakistan Resolution, in favour of the creation of the Pakistani state. The Muslim population supportedMuslim League andPakistan Movement. After the independence of Pakistan in 1947, Hindus and Sikhsmigrated to India and this led to the decline of Karachi, as Hindus controlled the business in Karachi, while the Muslim refugees from India settled down in Karachi. While many poor low caste Hindus, Christians, and wealthyZoroastrians (Parsees) remained in the city, Karachi's Sindhi Hindu migrated to India and was replaced by Muslim refugees who, in turn, had been uprooted from regions belonging to India.
Karachi became Pakistan's capital in 1947; by 1951, the population was 1.1 million. Although the capital shifted to Islamabad in 1959, Karachi continued to grow[2] as Muslim refugees from India fleeing fromanti-Muslimpogroms and other parts of South Asia came to settle in Karachi.[19] As a consequence, the demographics of the city also changed drastically. The Government of Pakistan through Public Works Department bought land to settle the Muslim refugees.[20]
By 1990, theKarachi Division covered 3365 sq km, and by 2007 the population reached approximately 14.5 million. The city was influenced byModernism, Mehdi Ali Mirza and others integrated contemporary styles, includingFrank Lloyd Wright's andLe Corbusier's approaches, seen in notable buildings likeMehdi Ali Mirza's residence and the Karachi University complex.Notable Constructions includeThe Institute of Business Administration, designed byWilliam Perry, and theAga Khan Hospital and Medical College, reflect evolving architectural sophistication and cultural integration.[2]
