Kannur (pronounced[kɐɳːuːr]ⓘ), formerly known in English asCannanore,Arabic asKannanur,[1] andPortuguese asCananor,[2] is acity and a Municipal Corporation inNorth Malabar region,state ofKerala, India. It is the largest city inNorth Malabar, which is the northernmost region of Kerala. It is sometimes identifiedKolathunadu, which was ruled by theKolathiris. In the 12th and 13th centuries there was trade withPersia andArabia.
It served as theBritish military headquarters on India's west coast until 1887. In conjunction with her sister city,Tellicherry, it was the third largest city on the western coast of British India in the 18th century afterBombay andKarachi.
The earliest evidence of human habitation in the district are rock-cut caves and megalithic burial sites of theNeolithic age. TheTaliparamba-Kannur-Thalassery area abounds in rock-cut caves,dolmens, burial stone circles andmenhirs, all ofmegalith.Ezhimala was the headquarters of a powerful kingdom namelyMushika dynasty in the ancient period.[3] Later Kannur was the capital of theKolattiri Rajas, whose kingdom had trading relations withArabia andPersia in the 12th century and 13th centuries. In his book on travels (Il Milione),Marco Polo recounts his visit to the area in the mid 1290s. Other visitors includedFaxian, the Buddhist pilgrim andIbn Batuta, writer and historian ofTangiers.
A popular legend holds that the ships of Solomon had anchored along the coasts of Kannur to collect teak for building theTemple of the Lord. Kannur also finds mention asNaura in thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea, aGreek work of great antiquity.
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North Malabar was the seat of powerful kingdom based atEzhimala in theSangam period (1st-5th century CE). The ancient port ofNaura, which is mentioned in thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea as a port somewhere north ofMuziris is identified withKannur.[3] The kingdom ofEzhimala had jurisdiction over twoNadus - The coastalPoozhinadu and the hilly easternKarkanadu. According to the works ofSangam literature,Poozhinadu consisted much of the coastal belt betweenMangalore andKozhikode.[4]Karkanadu consisted ofWayanad-Gudalur hilly region with parts ofKodagu (Coorg).[5] It is said that Nannan, the most renowned ruler ofEzhimala dynasty, took refuge atWayanad hills in the 5th century CE when he was lost toCheras, just before his execution in a battle, according to theSangam works.[5]
Pliny the Elder (1st century CE) states that the port ofTyndis was located at the northwestern border ofKeprobotos (Chera dynasty).[6] TheNorth Malabar region, which lies north of the port atTyndis, was ruled by the kingdom ofEzhimala duringSangam period.[7] According to thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea, a region known asLimyrike began atNaura andTyndis. However thePtolemy mentions onlyTyndis as theLimyrike's starting point. The region probably ended atKanyakumari; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-dayMalabar Coast. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000sesterces.[8]Pliny the Elder mentioned thatLimyrike was prone by pirates.[9] TheCosmas Indicopleustes mentioned that theLimyrike was a source of peppers.[10][11]
According toKerala Muslim tradition,Kannur along with surroundingMadayi andDharmadom were home to three of theoldest mosques in theIndian subcontinent. According to theLegend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) ofChera dynasty, who left fromDharmadom toMecca and converted toIslam during the lifetime ofMuhammad (c. 570–632).[12][13][14][15] According toQissat Shakarwati Farmad, theMasjids at Kodungallur,Kollam,Madayi,Barkur,Mangalore,Kasaragod,Kannur,Dharmadam,Panthalayani, andChaliyam, were built during the era ofMalik Dinar, and they are among the oldestMasjids in theIndian subcontinent.[16] It is believed thatMalik Dinar died atThalangara inKasaragod town.[17]
Ezhimala kingdom was succeeded byMushika dynasty in the early medieval period, most possibly due to the migration ofTuluva Brahmins fromTulu Nadu. TheMushika-vamsha Mahakavya, written byAthula in the 11th century, throws light on the recorded past of theMushika Royal Family up until that point.[18] The Indian anthropologistAyinapalli Aiyappan states that a powerful and warlike clan of theBunt community ofTulu Nadu was calledKola Bari and the Kolathiri Raja of Kolathunadu was a descendant of this clan.[19] The Kolathunadu (Kannur) Kingdom, who were the descendants ofMushika dynasty, at the peak of its power reportedly extended fromNetravati River (Mangalore) in the north[18] toKorapuzha (Kozhikode) in the south withArabian Sea on the west andKodagu hills on the eastern boundary, also including the isolated islands ofLakshadweep inArabian Sea.[4] AnOld Malayalam inscription (Ramanthali inscriptions), dated to 1075 CE, mentioning king Kunda Alupa, the ruler ofAlupa dynasty ofMangalore, can be found atEzhimala (the former headquarters ofMushika dynasty) nearCannanore, Kerala.[20] TheArabic inscription on a copper slab within theMadayi Mosque inKannur records its foundation year as 1124 CE.[21]
Until the 16th century CE, theKasargod town was known by the nameKanhirakode (may be by the meaning, 'The land ofKanhira Trees') inMalayalam.[1] TheKumbla dynasty, who swayed over the land of southernTulu Nadu wedged betweenChandragiri River andNetravati River (including present-day Taluks ofManjeshwar andKasaragod) fromMaipady Palace atKumbla, had also been vassals to theKolathunadu, before theCarnatic conquests ofVijayanagara Empire.[22] The Kumbla dynasty had a mixed lineage ofMalayaliNairs andTuluva Brahmins.[3] They also claimed their origin fromCheraman Perumals of Kerala.[3]Francis Buchanan-Hamilton states that the customs of Kumbla dynasty were similar to those of the contemporaryMalayali kings, though Kumbla was considered as the southernmost region ofTulu Nadu.[3] Just like other contemporary kings of Kerala in the medieval period, The powerful Kolathu Raja also came under the influence ofZamorin later. TheKolathunadu in the late medieval period emerged into independent 10 principalities i.e.,Kadathanadu (Vadakara),Randathara or Poyanad (Dharmadom),Kottayam (Thalassery),Nileshwaram, Iruvazhinadu (Panoor,Kurumbranad etc., under separate royal chieftains due to the outcome of internal dissensions.[23] TheNileshwaram dynasty on the northernmost part ofKolathiri dominion, were relatives to both Kolathunadu as well as theZamorin ofCalicut, in the early medieval period.[24]
ThePortuguese explorerVasco da Gama visited Kannur in 1498. Kannur became the sight of a confrontation between theOttoman Turks and thePortuguese Empire, shortly thereafter it became a Portuguese settlement. The port atKozhikode held the superior economic and political position in medieval Kerala coast, whileKannur,Kollam, andKochi, were commercially important secondary ports, where the traders from various parts of the world would gather.[25]
The Portuguese arrived atKappadKozhikode in 1498 during theAge of Discovery, thus opening a direct sea route fromEurope toIndia.[26] The Portuguese led byDon Francisco de Almeda, the first Portuguese viceroy for India, built theSt. Angelo's Fort north of Kannur in 1505. In 1663 the Dutch captured the fort. In 1790 the British captured the fort. At present, it is under the control of theArchaeological Survey of India. The island ofDharmadom near Kannur, along withThalassery, was ceded to theEast India Company as early as 1734, which were claimed by all of theKolattu Rajas,Kottayam Rajas, and Arakkal Bibi in the late medieval period, where the British initiated a factory and English settlement following thecession.[27][23] In the latter half of the 18th century,Hyder Ali andTipu Sultan, rulers ofMysore, conquered much of the district and came into conflict with the British. In 1792, at the conclusion of theThird Anglo-Mysore War, the British took over Kannur and the surrounding region, which became the newMalabar District ofBritish India'sMadras Presidency. During the 17th century, Kannur was the capital city of the onlyMuslim Sultanate in the Malabar region -Arakkal - who also ruled theLaccadive Islands in addition to the city of Kannur.[28]Arakkal Kingdom andChirakkal kingdom were two vassal kingdoms based in the city of Kannur.
In 1761, the British capturedMahé, and the settlement was handed over to the ruler ofKadathanadu.[29] The British restoredMahé to the French as a part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris.[29] In 1779, the Anglo-French war broke out, resulting in the French loss ofMahé.[29] In 1783, the British agreed to restore to the French their settlements in India, andMahé was handed over to the French in 1785.[29]
Kannur District witnessed one of the longest and bloodiest resistance to British rule in India. Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership ofKerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, who had popular support inThalassery-Wayanad region.[3] This revolt led byPazhassi Raja in the 1792–1806 period kept a large part of the district in a state of war.
Kannur District played an important role in the Indian freedom movement. TheIndian National Congress, founded in 1885, established aMalabar District committee in 1908. A branch of theAll India Home Rule League, founded byDr. Annie Besant, functioned inThalassery during this period and among its active workers wasV.K. Krishna Menon. By the end of 1939, a branch of theCommunist Party of India was formally established at Pinarayi, a village near Thalassery. The decision by theNagpur Congress to give up constitutional methods of agitation and resort to non-violent non-co-operation as a means of achievingswaraj led to the widespread boycott of foreign goods, courts of law and educational institutions in Kannur.Mahatma Gandhi andMaulana Shaukat Ali toured the district to carry the message of the Non-Co-operation andKhilafat Movements. The Khilafat movement of 1921 was an uprising of Muslims against the British for abolishing the Islamic Chaliphate in West Asia and resulted in the formation of a secular Turkey.
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Payyannur was the main venue of theSalt Satyagraha, a major turning point in the Indian Freedom Movement, in Malabar. On 13 April 1930, a batch of Congress volunteers under the leadership ofK. Kelappan started on foot fromKozhikode to the beaches of Payyannur and broke the salt laws there on 21 April. TheSatyagraha camp at Payyannur was raided and the campers were beaten up. The Uliyath Kadav Payyanur incident became a turning point in the history of freedom struggle in Kerala. It thrilled the people and thousands were ready to join in the struggle for freedom. The speeches ofK. Kumar, the leader of the delegation that came from Travancore, inspired and energised thousands[30][31] There were widespread demonstrations in Kannur, Thalassery and other parts of the district and a number of Congress workers were arrested. The period following the withdrawal of thecivil disobedience Movement witnessed the emergence ofradical wing in the Kerala Provincial Congress.
Some of the radical elements in the Kerala Provincial Congress organized a Kerala unit of theCongress Socialist Party in 1934 and functioned as a separate group within the Provincial Congress. The leadership of this group was in the hands of people likeP. Krishna Pillai,A.K. Gopalan andE. M. S. Namboodiripad. K.V.Kunhikkannan Nair of Kadachira, Kannur, a socialist leader. Anextremist group ofNationalist Muslims emerged within the Congress during this period under the leadership of Muhammad Abdur Rahiman. The CongressSocialists and the Nationalist Muslims made common cause against theGandhian group known as theRight Wing which was led by such leaders asK. Kelappan, C.K. Govindan Nair and K.A. Damodara Menon.
A notable development in the politics of Malabar during the 1930s was the rise of theMuslim League as a district political party. The Muslim leaders Kannur and Thalassery played the lead roles in forming this organization. Theleftist elements in the Kerala Provincial Congress were also active in the politics of Malabar in the late 30s. They took an active part in organizing the workers, peasants, students and teachers of Kannur district under their banner. In the election held to theKerala Pradesh Congress Committee in January 1939, the Rightists suffered a severe setback.Muhammad Abdur Rahiman Sahib was elected as the president of the K.P.C.C andE. M. S. Namboodiripad as its general secretary. Towards the end of the same year, a branch of theIndian Communist Party was formally founded in Malabar. TheCongress Socialist Party workers joined the Communist Party en bloc.
Kannur district became the focus of Kerala politics in May 1928, when the fourth All Kerala Political Conference was held at Payyanur under the auspices of the Kerala Provincial Congress. This conference was presided over by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. The Payyanur Conference passed a resolution requesting the Indian National Congress to adopt 'Complete Independence' instead of "Swaraj" as its goal at the annual session scheduled to take place at Calcutta during that year.
The KPCC gave a call to the people ofMalabar to observe 15 September 1940 asAnti-Imperialist Day. The action was disapproved by the Congress High Command, but there were meetings and demonstrations all over Malabar on this day. Kannur district was the centre of this agitation. There were violent clashes between the people and the police at several places andlathicharge and firing were resorted to by the police to meet the situation. Two young men were killed in a clash between a mob and a police party at Morazha. The men were police officersSub-Inspector K.M Kuttikrishna Menon andConstable Raman. In connection with this incident,K.P.R. Gopalan, a prominent communist, was arrested on a charge of murder and later sentenced to death. But, owing to the intervention of several top-ranking political leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi, the death penalty was not carried out.
TheQuit India Movement of August 1942 also had its echoes in Kannur district. A socialist group among the Congress workers underDr. K. B. Menon provided leadership to the movement.
Payyannur was the main venue of the Salt Sathyagraha in Malabar. On 13 April, a batch of Congress volunteers under the leadership of K. Kelappan started on foot from Kozhikode to the beaches of Payyannur and broke the salt laws there on 21 April. The Satyagraha camp at Payyannur was raided and the campers were beaten up. There were widespread demonstrations in Kannur, Thalassery and other places. Congress workers broke salt laws and picketed foreign good dealers and liquor shops.
In Cannore, the Salt Satyagraha was spearheaded byK. Kumar of Travancore popularly known as Kumarji, Elanthoor Kumarji or Travancore Gandhi. K. Kumarji had come all the way from Trivandrum to British Malabar with a group of prominent activists to break Salt Law since political agitations were banned by Gandhi and INC in the Princely State. Kumar had long been a fierce and fearless campaigner and crusader for Civil Rights. His speeches made waves in Travancore and along the Malabar Cost and inspired people in large numbers to support the Civil disobedience movement,[32][33][34]
K.Kumar was an active participant of the movement in different parts of British Malabar including Kozhikode and Tellissery.[35] However, he had longed to court arrest in Cannore where Swadeshabhimani Ramakrishna was laid to rest. With the passing of the resolution to break salt law in Cannore that opportunity presented itself and he was invited to Cannore by Moyyarathu SankaranWikipedia-Malayalam: Moyyarathu Sankaran and others. Along with 101 volunteers Kumarji came to Cannore to break salt law. The British police and British supporters had done everything within their reach to disrupt the party and the talks of the leaders. However, people got enthusiastically drawn to Kumarji's speeches and defying all barriers squatted in large numbrrs on the bare beach to listen to him. The party made salt and took out a procession along the city carrying on their head mud-pots with the salt they had made. Moyyarathu Sankaran says in his autobiography that Cannore had never before witnessed a mass uprising or mass celebration of that magnitude. On 19 April, the third day of making salt, Kumar was arrested from the Satyagraha Camp. He was convicted on 27 May 1930. The Police Inspector summoned Moyyarathu Sankaran and canned him for entertaining trouble-makers of Travancore. Kumarji was sent to Cannore Jail and was later shifted to Vellore to serve a term of 9 months. People of Cannore gave him an emotional farewell. The other agitators included Mohammed Yousuf, Moyyarathu Sankaran, KP Gopalan and Umman Varghese,[33][36][31]
The period following the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience Movement witnessed the emergence of a radical wing in the Kerala Provincial Congress. Some of the radical elements in the Kerala Provincial Congress organised a Kerala unit of the Congress Socialist Party in 1934 and functioned as a separate group within the Provincial Congress. The leadership of this group was in the hands of persons like P. Krishna Pillai, A.K. Gopalan and E.M.S. Namboothiripad. An extremist group of Nationalist Muslims also emerged within the Congress during this period under the leadership of Muhammad Abdur Rahiman. The Congress Socialists and the Nationalist Muslims made common cause against the Gandhian group known as the Right Wing which was led by such leaders asK. Kelappan, C.K. Govindan Nair andK. A. Damodara Menon.
A notable development in the politics of Malabar during the thirties was the rise of the Muslim League as a district political party. It was the Muslim leaders of Kannur and Thalassery who played the lead role in forming this organisation.
The leftist elements in the Kerala Provincial Congress were also active in the politics of Malabar in the late thirties. They took active part in organising the workers, peasants, students and teachers of Kannur district under their banner. In the election held to the Kerala Provincial Congress Committee in January 1939, the Rightists suffered a severe set back. Muhammad Abdur Rahiman was elected as the president of the K.P.C.C. and E.M.S. Namboothiripad as its general secretary. Towards the end of the same year, a branch of the Indian Communist Party was formally founded in Malabar. The Congress Socialist Party workers joined the Communist Party block.
World War II, especially in the period from 1943 to 1945, ravaged the district. Famine and acholera epidemic took thousands of lives from the lower strata of society. On the initiative of the people under the leadership of theKisan Sabha, commendable services were rendered to tide over the crisis. The "Grow More Food Campaign", organized at Mangattuparamba by the Kisan Sabha, was a new chapter in the history of mass movement. More than 50 acres (20 ha) of government land was brought under cultivation. However, the government suppressed the movement by force and destroyed the farm.[citation needed]
Though the war ended in 1945, famine continued to haunt the people. Karivellor, Poomaram (Thillenkeri) the northernmost village of the present Kannur district, made a historic stride in the struggle against poverty and famine. The transporting of paddy rice from Karivellore toChirakkal Kovilakom was blocked and distributed to the people of the village. The movement was led by peasant leaders such as A.V. Kunhambu and K. Krishnan Master. One Kannan and Kunhambu becamemartyrs in the struggle when police opened fire.
During December 1946, the people of Kavumbayi, an eastern village of the district, raised their demand forpunam cultivation. A strong police contingent was sent to the spot. The peasants resisted the armed forces which led to the killing of five peasants in the firing.
The rise of the organized working class in the industrial sector was another important phenomenon of the period that changed the course of the anti-imperialism movement. The struggle of Aron Mill workers in 1946 is noteworthy in this regard. Even after independence, the struggles of the peasantry formed an important part in the history of the state. They fought against landlords and their exploitation. Places like Thillankeri, Manayankunnu, Korom and Paddikkunnu are memorable in the annals of the peasant struggles in the post independence era. The All India Conference of Kisan Sabha, held at Kannur in 1953, resolved to initiate struggles for new tenancy legislation. The movement for Aikya Kerala also got momentum during this period and all sections of the society rallied under the movement.
St. Angelo Fort was built in 1505 by DomFrancisco de Almeida, the first Portuguese Viceroy of India. It is situated by theLaccadive Sea about 3 km from Kannur town. In 1507, the fort wasbesieged by the local ruler; the Portuguese rule over Cananor (as they spelt it) would last 158 years and then replaced by the Dutch. The ownership of the fort has changed hands several times. In 1663, the Dutch captured it. They subsequently gave the fort its present appearance. The Dutch sold the fort to the Arakkal Royal family in 1772. During this time, the Arakkal Sultanate began issuing coins.[28]
The Britishconquered it in 1790 and used it as one of their major military stations on theMalabar Coast. It is fairly well preserved as a protected monument under theArchaeological Survey of India. A painting of this fort and thefishing ferry as a background is on display at theRijksmuseum inAmsterdam.Kunjali Marakkar's head was removed from his body and exhibited in the fort after his assassination.
During the 17th century, Kannur was the capital city of the onlyMuslim Sultanate in India, known asArakkal.[28] During theBritish Raj, Kannur was part of theMadras province in theNorth Malabar District.
The guerrilla war byPazhassi Raja, the ruler of Kottayam province, against the British had a huge impact in the history of Kannur. Changes in the socio-economic and political sectors in Kerala during the initial decades of 20th century created conditions congenial for the growth of the Communist Party.
New strains of thought developed as capitalist transformation laid the foundation for the commencement of social reform movements in sections of society. At the all India level, Vivekananda and others put forward such thoughts. Against this background social reform movements started by Sree Narayana Guru, Ayyankali and others in southern parts of Kerala and by Vagbhatananda and others in northern parts got developed into movements against superstition and bad customs. These evoked a big stirring among the people. An attitude against untouchability and casteism and interest in acquiring modern education were evident among all sections. Pressures for the same started developing in the society.
Extension of English education initiated by Christian missionaries in 1906 and later carried forward by government, rebellion for wearing a cloth to cover upper parts of body, installing an idol at Aruvippuram in 1888, Malayali Memorial in 1891, establishment of SNDP Yogam in 1903, activities, struggles etc. became factors helpful to accelerate changes in Kerala society during a short time. Movements for liberation from the colonial rule of British imperialism and struggles launched by these movements grew with them.
During this period, social renaissance movements and independence movement were growing. Ideas about socialism andSoviet Revolution reached Kerala. Such ideas got propagated in Kerala through the works ofSwadeshabhimani Ramakrishna Pillai,Sahodaran Ayyappan,P. Kesavadev and others.
During this period against the background of sufferings inflicted byJanmithama(a system wherein feudal landlords controlled land)nd imperialism, struggles and organizations of peasants and workers started emerging slowly. The practice of collective bargaining by working people also started. The peasant rebellion known as Malabar Rebellion of 1921 and consequent political changes highly influenced the independence movement of Kerala.
A number of Kerala youth were jailed during this period for participating in ‘violation of law’ movement as part of independence movement. At this timeKiran Chandra Das (brother ofJithendra Das),Kamal Nath Thivari,Sen Gupta,T.N. Chandravarthi andSarath Chandra Acharya were in a Kannur jail andJayadev Kapur in a Vellore jail. Malayalee youngsters got an opportunity to get acquainted with them, be suggested books to read, and discuss issues. They came to know of many new aspects of political work. This gave them a new sense of direction. E.M.S writes about this:
"It will not be a big exaggeration to say that seeds of left, Congress and Congress Socialist movements were sown at Kannur jail and that too by Thivari."
It was youth dissatisfied by the Congress policy which was afraid of people's advance who were attracted to the socialist idea. At that time there was an atmosphere in Kerala which gave strength to such thoughts.
People were suffering a lot due to persecution by landlords. Against this resistance and organizations were cropping up here and there. In 1935 July a meeting of peasants were held in the Bharatheeya building in Naniyoor in Kolachery Amsom of old Chirakkal Taluk. Kolachery Karshaka Sangham was formed with Vishnu Bharatheeyan as president and K.A. Keraleeyan as secretary. By September 1935, Karivelloor Karshaka Sangham was formed which represented round Karivelloor, Velloor, Peralam and Kotakkad. With the formation of All India Kisan Sabha in 1936 a new front of struggle was opened in agrarian sector. The Hunger March led by AKG in 1936 July raising the demands of peasants imparted a new vigour to this sector. Following this a number of Karshaka Sangham were formed in Malabar. In 1936 November the first Karshaka Conference of Chirakkal Taluk was held at Parassinikkadavu. In 1937 All Malabar conference of Karshaka Sangham was held in Kozhikode. This awakening among peasants prepared the ground for the advent of a new political movement.
Trade unions started to be formed and strengthened. Global economic crisis of 1929 started creating serious consequences in Indian economy as well. First Travancore Labour Association came into being. Such organizations later became militant trade unions. Strikes were organized in Kozhikkode, Kannur, Pappinisseri, Thalassery and other centres of commerce which further strengthened trade unions. In 1935 May the first Kerala Workers’ conference was held at Kozhikode. This initiative to bring up working class as an independent class force prepared the ground for propagating Communist ideas. During this period coir workers in Travancore got organized and achieved strength. In Kochi organizations like Cochin Sterling Workers’ Union were being formed. Labour brotherhood and trade unions of Alagappa Textiles and Sitaram Mills were formed. In 1937 second All Kerala Workers’ Conference was held at Thrissur. This organizational consciousness developed among workers prepared the ground for a new politics.[37]
By the beginning of the 1930s some other useful developments were taking place. Important among them was Nivarthana Agitation in Travancore. That was the demand of people suppressed so far as untouchables and weaker sections for participation in government. This brought to the forefront struggles like proportional representation in government and reservation of jobs. This imparted a new enthusiasm among oppressed masses.[38]
A very powerful and warlike section of the Bants of Tulunad was known as Kola bari. It is reasonable to suggest that the Kola dynasty was part of the Kola lineages of Tulunad.
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