Thehistory of Indian cuisine consists of cuisine of theIndian subcontinent, which is rich and diverse. The diverse climate in the region, ranging from deep tropical to alpine, has also helped considerably broaden the set of ingredients readily available to the many schools of cookery in India. In many cases, food has become a marker of religious and social identity, with varying taboos and preferences (for instance, a segment of theJain population consume no roots or subterranean vegetable; seeJain vegetarianism) which has also driven these groups to innovate extensively with the food sources that are deemed acceptable.
One strong influence over Indian foods is the longstandingvegetarianism within sections ofHindu andJain communities. At 31%, slightly less than a third of Indians are vegetarians.[1]
Indian cuisine reflects an8,000-year history of various groups and cultures interacting with theIndian subcontinent, leading to diversity of flavours and regional cuisines found in modern-day India. Later, trade with British andPortuguese influence added to the already diverse Indian cuisine.[2][3]
Prehistory and Indus Valley Civilization exchanges with Sumeria and Mesopotamia
After 9000 BCE, a first period of indirect contacts betweenFertile Crescent andIndus Valley (IV) seems to have occurred as a consequence of theNeolithic Revolution and the diffusion of agriculture.[note 1] Around 7000 BCE, agriculture spread from the Fertile Crescent to the Indus Valley, and wheat and barley began to be grown.Sesame andhumped cattle were domesticated in the local farming communities.[4] Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia.[5][6][note 2]
From Around 2350 BCE the evidence for imports from the Indus toUr inMesopotamia have been found, as well asClove heads which are thought to originate from theMoluccas inMaritime Southeast Asia were found in a 2nd millennium BC site inTerqa.[18]Akkadian Empire records mention timber, carnelian and ivory as being imported fromMeluhha by Meluhhan ships, Meluhha being generally considered as the Mesopotamian name for the Indus Valley Civilization.[19][20][21]
Vedic and vegetarian Buddhist exchanges with Roman empire and influence on Southeast Asia
The ancientHindu textMahabharata mentions rice and vegetable cooked together, and the word "pulao" or "pallao" is used to refer to the dish in ancientSanskrit works, such asYājñavalkya Smṛti.[22]Ayurveda, ancient Indian system of wellness, deals with holistic approach to wellness, and it includes food,dhyana {meditation} andyoga.
Later, arrivals fromArabia, Central Asia,[25] and centuries of trade relations and cultural exchange resulted in a significant influence on each region's cuisines, such as the adoption of thetandoor in Middle East which had originated in northwestern India.[26]
ThePortuguese andBritish during their rule introduced cooking techniques such as baking, and foods from theNew World and Europe. Thenew-world vegetables popular in cuisine from the Indian subcontinent includetomato,potato,sweet potatoes,peanuts,squash, andchilli. Most New world vegetables such as sweet potatoes, potatoes,Amaranth, peanuts andcassava basedSago are allowed on Hindu fasting days. Cauliflower was introduced by the British in 1822.[27] In the late 18th/early 19th century, an autobiography of a ScottishRobert Lindsay mentions aSylheti man called Saeed Ullah cooking a curry for Lindsay's family. This is possibly the oldest record of Indian cuisine in the United Kingdom.[28][29]
In 2019, according to data released by United Nations, 17.5 million ofoverseas Indians formed the world's largestdiaspora, including 3.4 million in UAE, 2.7 million in USA, and 2.4 million in Saudi Arabia.[30] Indian migration has spread the culinary traditions of the subcontinent throughout the world. These cuisines have been adapted to local tastes, and have also affected local cuisines.Curry's international appeal has been compared to that ofpizza.[31] Indian tandoor dishes such aschicken tikka enjoy widespread popularity.[32]
The UK's first Indian restaurant, theHindoostanee Coffee House, opened in 1810.[33][34] By 2003, there were as many as 10,000 restaurants serving Indian cuisine in England andWales alone; 90% of Indian restaurants in the UK are run byBritish Bangladeshis.[35] According to Britain'sFood Standards Agency, the Indian food industry in the United Kingdom is worth 3.2 billionpounds, accounts for two-thirds of all eating out and serves about 2.5 million customers every week.[36] A survey byThe Washington Post in 2007 stated that more than 1,200 Indian food products had been introduced into the United States since 2000.[37]
Indian cuisine is very popular in Southeast Asia, due to the strong Hindu and Buddhist cultural influence in the region. Indian cuisine has had considerable influence on Malaysian cooking styles[38] and also enjoys popularity in Singapore.[39][40] There are numerous North and South Indian restaurants in Singapore, mostly inLittle India. Singapore is also known forfusion cuisine combining traditionalSingaporean cuisine with Indian influences. Fish head curry, for example, is a local creation. Indian influence onMalay cuisine dates to the 19th century.[41] Other cuisines which borrow inspiration from Indian cooking styles includeCambodian,Lao,Filipino,Vietnamese,Indonesian,Thai, andBurmese cuisines. The spread of vegetarianism in other parts of Asia is often credited to Hindu and Buddhist practices.[42]
A 2019 research paper by US economistJoel Waldfogel, based on travel data fromTripAdvisor, affirmed India'ssoft power which ranked Indian cuisine fourth most popular. Italian, Japanese & Chinese food being top 3. Indian cuisine is especially most popular in United Kingdom, South Korea, Thailand, Japan, Germany, France and US.[43] In another 2019 survey of 25,000 people cross 34 countries, the largest fans of India cuisine who have tried it are the Indians (93%), British (84%), Singaporeans (77%), Norwegians (75%), Australians (74%), French (71%), Finnish (71%), Malaysians (70%), Indonesians (49%), Vietnamese (44%), Thai (27%), and mainland Chinese (26%).[44]
^According toAhmad Hasan Dani, professor emeritus atQuaid-e-Azam University,Islamabad, the discovery of Mehrgarh "changed the entire concept of the Indus civilisation […] There we have the whole sequence, right from the beginning of settled village life.", ref "Chandler 34–42"
^Excavations atBhirrana, Haryana, in India between 2006 and 2009, by archaeologist K.N. Dikshit, provided six artefacts, including "relatively advanced pottery," so-calledHakra ware, which were dated at a time bracket between 7380 and 6201 BCE.[7][8][9][10] These dates compete with Mehrgarh for being the oldest site for cultural remains in the area.[11]
Yet, Dikshit and Mani clarify that this time-bracket concerns only charcoal samples, which were radio-carbon dated at respectively 7570–7180 BCE (sample 2481) and 6689–6201 BCE (sample 2333).[12][13] Dikshit further writes that the earliest phase concerns 14 shallow dwelling-pits which "could accommodate about 3–4 people."[14] According to Dikshit, in the lowest level of these pits wheel-made Hakra Ware was found which was "not well finished,"[14] together with other wares.[15]
^Alejandro, Reynaldo (1985).The Philippine cookbook. New York, New York: Penguin. pp. 12–14.ISBN978-0-399-51144-8. Retrieved30 June 2011. Philippines Country Study Guide. Int'l Business Publications. 2007. p. 111.ISBN978-1-4330-3970-6.Throughout the centuries, the islands have incorporated the cuisine of the early Malay settlers, Arab and Chinese traders, and Spanish and American colonizers along with other Oriental and Occidental accent and flavours. "Philippine Cuisine."Archived 2011-06-16 at theWayback MachineBalitapinoy.netArchived 2011-07-23 at theWayback Machine. Retrieved July 2011. Morgolis, Jason (6 February 2014)."Why is it so hard to find a good Filipino restaurant?".Public Radio International. Retrieved17 December 2014.Philippine food has Chinese, Malaysian, Spanish and American influences — all cultures that have shaped the Philippines.
^Roy, Modhumita (7 August 2010). "Some Like It Hot: Class, Gender and Empire in the Making of Mulligatawny Soup".Economic and Political Weekly.45 (32):66–75.JSTOR20764390.
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![Bhang eaters from India c. 1790. Bhang is an edible preparation of cannabis native to the Indian subcontinent. It has been used in food and drink as early as 1000 BCE by Hindus in ancient India.[53]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBhang_eaters_before_two_huts_(6124556163).jpg)
