Theend of Roman rule in Britain facilitated theAnglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, which historians often regard as the origin of England and of theEnglish people. TheAnglo-Saxons, a collection of variousGermanic peoples, established several kingdoms that became the primary powers in present-day England and parts of southernScotland.[3] They introduced theOld English language, which largely displaced the previousBrittonic language. The Anglo-Saxons warred with British successor states in western Britain and theHen Ogledd (Old North; theBrittonic-speaking parts of northern Britain), as well as with each other. Raids byVikings became frequent after about AD 800, and theNorsemen settled in large parts of what is now England. During this period, several rulers attempted to unite the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, an effort that led to the emergence of theKingdom of England by the 10th century.
Under the Tudors and the laterStuart dynasty, England became a colonial power. During the rule of the Stuarts, theEnglish Civil War took place between the Parliamentarians and the Royalists, which resulted inthe execution ofKing Charles I (1649) and the establishment of a series of republican governments—first, a Parliamentary republic known as theCommonwealth of England (1649–1653), then a military dictatorship underOliver Cromwell known asthe Protectorate (1653–1659). The Stuarts returned to the restored throne in 1660, though continued questions over religion and power resulted in the deposition of another Stuart king,James II, in theGlorious Revolution (1688). England, which had subsumed Wales in the 16th century underHenry VIII, united with Scotland in 1707 to form a new sovereign state calledGreat Britain.[8][9][10] Following theIndustrial Revolution, which started in England, Great Britain ruled a colonialEmpire, the largest in recorded history. Following a process ofdecolonisation in the 20th century, mainly caused by the weakening of Great Britain's power in the two World Wars, almost all of the empire's overseas territories became independent countries.
Stonehenge, erected in several stages from c.3000–2500 BC
The time from Britain's first inhabitation until theLast Glacial Maximum is known as the Old Stone Age, orPaleolithic era. Archaeological evidence indicates that what was to become England was colonised by humans long before the rest of the British Isles because of its more hospitable climate between and during the variousglacial periods of the distant past. This earliest evidence, from Happisburgh in Norfolk, includes the oldest hominid artefacts found in Britain, and points to dates of more than 800,000RCYBP.[1] These earliest inhabitants werehunter-gatherers. Low sea-levels meant that Britain was attached to the continent for much of this earliest period of history, and varying temperatures over tens of thousands of years meant that it was not always inhabited.[11]
England has been continuously inhabited since the last Ice Age ended around 9000 BC, the beginning of the Middle Stone Age, orMesolithic era. Rising sea-levels cut off Britain from the continent for the last time around 6500 BC. The population by then, as in the rest of the world, was exclusivelyanatomically modern humans, and the evidence suggests that their societies were increasingly complex and they were manipulating their environment and prey in new ways, possibly selective burning of then-omnipresent woodland to create clearings for herds to gather and hunt. Hunting was mainly done with simple projectile weapons such as thejavelin and possibly thesling. Thebow and arrow was known in Western Europe since at least 9000 BC. The climate continued to warm and the population probably rose.[12]
The New Stone Age, orNeolithic era, began with the introduction of farming, ultimately from the Middle East, around 4000 BC. A 2019 study found that theNeolithic farmers of the British Isles had entered the region through amass migration c. 4100 BC. They were closely related to Neolithic peoples of Iberia.[13] People began to lead a more settled lifestyle. Monumental collective tombs were built for the dead in the form of chambered cairns and long barrows. Towards the end of this period, other kinds of monumental stone alignments begin to appear, such asStonehenge; their cosmic alignments show a preoccupation with the sky and planets. Flint technology produced a number of highly artistic pieces as well as purely practical. More extensive woodland clearance was done for fields and pastures. TheSweet Track in theSomerset Levels is one of the oldesttimber trackways known in Northern Europe and among the oldest roads in the world, dated bydendrochronology to the winter of 3807–3806 BC; it is thought to have been a primarily religious structure.[11] Archaeological evidence fromNorth Yorkshire indicates that salt was being manufactured there in the Neolithic.[14]
TheBronze Age began around 2500 BC with the appearance of bronze objects. This coincides with the appearance of the characteristicBell Beaker culture, following migration of new people from the continent. According to Olalde et al. (2018), after 2500 BC Britain's Neolithic population was largely replaced by this new Bell Beaker population, that was genetically related to theCorded Ware culture of central and eastern Europe and theYamnaya culture of the eastern EuropeanPontic-Caspian Steppe.[15][16] While the migration of these Beaker peoples must have been accompanied by a language shift, the Celtic languages were probably introduced by later Celtic migrations.[17]
The Bronze Age saw a shift of emphasis from the communal to the individual, and the rise of increasingly powerful elites whose power came from their prowess as hunters and warriors and their controlling the flow of precious resources to manipulate tin and copper into high-status bronze objects such as swords and axes. Settlement became increasingly permanent and intensive. Towards the end of the Bronze Age, many examples of very fine metalwork began to be deposited in rivers, presumably for ritual reasons and perhaps reflecting a progressive change in emphasis from the sky to the earth, as a rising population put increasing pressure on the land. England largely became bound up with theAtlantic trade system, which created a cultural continuum over a large part of Western Europe.[18] It is possible that theCeltic languages developed or spread to England as part of this system; by the end of the Iron Age there is much evidence that they were spoken across all England and western parts of Britain.[19]
TheIron Age is conventionally said to begin around 800 BC. At this time, theBritons or Celtic Britons were settled in England. The Celtic people of early England were the majority of the population, beside other smaller ethnic groups in Great Britain. After some time, theCeltic Britons diverged into the multiple distinct ethnic groups such as Welsh, Cornish and Breton, but they were still tied by language, religion and culture. They spoke the Brittonic language, a Celtic language which is the ancestor of the modern Brittonic languages. The Atlantic trade system had by this time effectively collapsed, although England maintained contacts across the channel with France, as theHallstatt culture became widespread across the country. Its continuity suggests it was not accompanied by substantial movement of population; crucially, only a single Hallstatt burial is known from Britain, and even here the evidence is inconclusive. On the whole, burials largely disappear across England, and the dead were disposed of in a way which is archaeologically invisible:excarnation is a widely cited possibility.Hillforts were known since the Late Bronze Age, but a huge number were constructed during 600–400 BC, particularly in the South, while after about 400 BC new forts were rarely built and many ceased to be regularly inhabited, while a few forts become more and more intensively occupied, suggesting a degree of regional centralisation.
Around this time the earliest mentions of Britain appear in the annals of history. The first historical mention of the region is from theMassaliote Periplus, a sailing manual for merchants thought to date to the 6th century BC, andPytheas ofMassilia wrote of his voyage of discovery to the island around 325 BC. Both of these texts are now lost; although quoted by later writers, not enough survives to inform the archaeological interpretation to any significant degree.
Britain, we are told, is inhabited by tribes which are autochthonous and preserve in their ways of living the ancient manner of life. They use chariots, for instance, in their wars, even as tradition tells us the old Greek heroes did in the Trojan War.
Contact with the continent was less than in the Bronze Age but still significant. Goods continued to move to England, with a possible hiatus around 350 to 150 BC. There were a few armed invasions of hordes of migrating Celts. There are two known invasions. Around 300 BC, a group from the GaulishParisii tribe apparently took over East Yorkshire, establishing the highly distinctiveArras culture. And from around 150–100 BC, groups of Belgae began to control significant parts of the South.
Bronze coins ofCunobelin, called "King of the Britons" bySuetonius. 1–42 AD.
These invasions constituted movements of a few people who established themselves as a warrior elite atop existing native systems, rather than replacing them. The Belgic invasion was much larger than the Parisian settlement, but the continuity of pottery style shows that the native population remained in place. Yet, it was accompanied by significant socio-economic change. Proto-urban, or even urban settlements, known asoppida, begin to eclipse the old hillforts, and an elite whose position is based on battle prowess and the ability to manipulate resources re-appears much more distinctly.[22]
In 55 and 54 BC,Julius Caesar, as part ofhis campaigns in Gaul,invaded Britain and claimed to have scored a number of victories, but he never penetrated further than Hertfordshire and could not establish a province. However, his invasions mark a turning-point in British history. Control of trade, the flow of resources and prestige goods, became ever more important to the elites of Southern Britain; Rome steadily became the biggest player in all their dealings, as the provider of great wealth and patronage. In retrospect, a full-scale invasion and annexation was inevitable.[23]
After Caesar's expeditions, the Romans began a serious and sustained attempt toconquer Britain in AD 43, at the behest of EmperorClaudius. They landed in Kent with four legions and defeated two armies led by the kings of theCatuvellauni tribe,Caratacus andTogodumnus, in battles at the Medway and the Thames. Togodumnus was killed, and Caratacus fled to Wales. The Roman force, led byAulus Plautius, waited for Claudius to come and lead the final march on the Catuvellauni capital atCamulodunum (modernColchester), before he returned to Rome for his triumph. The Catuvellauni held sway over most of the southeastern corner of England; eleven local rulers surrendered, a number of client kingdoms were established, and the rest became a Roman province with Camulodunum as its capital.[24] Over the next four years, the territory was consolidated and the future emperorVespasian led a campaign into the Southwest where he subjugated two more tribes. By AD 54 the border had been pushed back to the Severn and the Trent, and campaigns were underway to subjugate Northern England and Wales.
But in AD 60, under the leadership of the warrior-queenBoudicca, the tribes rebelled against the Romans. At first, the rebels had great success. They burned Camulodunum,Londinium andVerulamium (modern-day Colchester, London and St. Albans respectively) to the ground. There is some archaeological evidence that the same happened at Winchester. The Second LegionAugusta, stationed atExeter, refused to move for fear of revolt among the locals. Londinium governorSuetonius Paulinus evacuated the city before the rebels sacked and burned it; the fire was so hot that a ten-inch layer of melted red clay remains 15 feet below London's streets.[25] In the end, the rebels were said to have killed 70,000 Romans and Roman sympathisers. Paulinus gathered what was left of the Roman army. In thedecisive battle, 10,000 Romans faced nearly 100,000 warriors somewhere along the line ofWatling Street, at the end of which Boudicca was utterly defeated. It was said that 80,000 rebels were killed, but only 400 Romans.
Over the next 20 years, the borders expanded slightly, but the governor Agricola incorporated into the province the last pockets of independence in Wales and Northern England. He also led a campaign into Scotland which was recalled by Emperor Domitian. The border gradually formed along theStanegate road in Northern England, solidified byHadrian's Wall built in AD 138, despite temporary forays into Scotland.
The Romans and their culture stayed in charge for 350 years.Traces of their presence are ubiquitous throughout England.
Anglo-Saxon helmet from theSutton Hoo ship burial, 625 AD (replica)
In the wake of the breakdown of Roman rule in Britain from the middle of the fourth century, present day England was progressively settled byGermanic groups. Collectively known as theAnglo-Saxons, these includedAngles,Saxons,Jutes, andFrisians. TheBattle of Deorham was critical in establishing Anglo-Saxon rule in 577.[26] Saxon mercenaries existed in Britain since before the late Roman period, but the main influx of population probably happened after the fifth century. The precise nature of these invasions is not fully known; there are doubts about the legitimacy of historical accounts due to a lack of archaeological finds.Gildas'De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, composed in the 6th century, states that when the Roman army departed the Isle of Britannia in the 4th century AD, the indigenous Britons were invaded byPicts, their neighbours to the north (now Scotland) and theScots (now Ireland). Britons invited theSaxons to the island to repel them but after they vanquished the Scots and Picts, the Saxons turned against the Britons.
Kingdoms and tribes inBritain, c. AD 600The epic poemBeowulf, set in 6th century Scandinavia, composed c. 700–1000 AD.
Seven kingdoms are traditionally identified as being established by these migrants. Three were clustered in the South east:Sussex,Kent andEssex. The Midlands were dominated by the kingdoms ofMercia andEast Anglia. To the north wasNorthumbria which unified two earlier kingdoms,Bernicia andDeira. Other smaller kingdoms seem to have existed as well, such asLindsey in what is now Lincolnshire, and theHwicce in the southwest. Eventually, the kingdoms were dominated by Northumbria and Mercia in the 7th century, Mercia in the 8th century and thenWessex in the 9th century. Northumbria eventually extended its control north into Scotland and west into Wales. It also subdued Mercia whose first powerful King,Penda, was killed byOswy in 655. Northumbria's power began to wane after 685 with the defeat and death of its kingAegfrith at the hands of the Picts. Mercian power reached its peak under the rule ofOffa, who from 785 had influence over most of Anglo-Saxon England. Since Offa's death in 796, the supremacy of Wessex was established underEgbert who extended control west intoCornwall before defeating the Mercians at theBattle of Ellendun in 825. Four years later, he received submission and tribute from the Northumbrian king,Eanred.[27]
Since so few contemporary sources exist, the events of the fifth and sixth centuries are difficult to ascertain. As such, the nature of the Anglo-Saxon settlements is debated by historians, archaeologists and linguists. The traditional view, that the Anglo-Saxons drove the Romano-British inhabitants out of what is now England, was subject to reappraisal in the later twentieth century. One suggestion is that the invaders were smaller in number, drawn from an elite class of male warriors that gradually acculturated the natives.[28][29][30]
An emerging view is that the scale of the Anglo-Saxon settlement varied across England, and that as such it cannot be described by any one process in particular. Mass migration and population shift seem to be most applicable in the core areas of settlement such as East Anglia and Lincolnshire,[31][32][33][34][35] while in more peripheral areas to the northwest, much of the native population likely remained in place as the incomers took over as elites.[36][37] In a study of place names in northeastern England and southern Scotland, Bethany Fox concluded that Anglian migrants settled in large numbers in river valleys, such as those of the Tyne and the Tweed, with the Britons in the less fertile hill country becoming acculturated over a longer period. Fox interprets the process by which English came to dominate this region as "a synthesis of mass-migration and elite-takeover models."[38]
Genetic testing has been used to find evidence of large scale immigration ofGermanic peoples into England.Wealeet al. (2002) found that English Y DNA data showed signs of a massAnglo-Saxon immigration from the European continent, affecting 50%–100% of the male gene pool in central England. This was based on the similarity of the DNA collected from small English towns to that found inFriesland.[39] A 2003 study with samples coming from larger towns, found a large variance in amounts of continental "Germanic" ancestry in different parts of England.[40] In the study, such markers typically ranged from 20% and 45% in southern England, with East Anglia, the east Midlands, and Yorkshire having over 50%. North German and Danish genetic frequencies were indistinguishable, thus precluding any ability to distinguish between the genetic influence of the Anglo-Saxon source populations and the later, and better documented, influx of Danish Vikings.[41] The mean value of continental Germanic genetic input in this study was calculated at 54 per cent.[42]
In response to arguments, such as those ofStephen Oppenheimer[43] andBryan Sykes, that the similarity between English and continental Germanic DNA could have originated from earlier prehistoric migrations, researchers have begun to use data collected from ancient burials to ascertain the level of Anglo-Saxon contribution to the modern English gene pool.
Two studies published in 2016, based on data collected from skeletons found in Iron Age, Roman and Anglo-Saxon era graves in Cambridgeshire and Yorkshire, concluded that the ancestry of the modern English population contains large contributions from both Anglo-Saxon migrants and Romano-British natives.[44][45]
Throughout the 7th and 8th centuries, power fluctuated between the larger kingdoms.Bede records Æthelberht of Kent as being dominant at the close of the 6th century, but power seems to have shifted northwards to the kingdom of Northumbria, which was formed from the amalgamation of Bernicia and Deira.Edwin of Northumbria probably held dominance over much of Britain, though Bede's Northumbrian bias should be kept in mind. Due to succession crises, Northumbrian hegemony was not constant, andMercia remained a very powerful kingdom, especially under Penda. Two defeats ended Northumbrian dominance: the Battle of the Trent in 679 against Mercia, and Nechtanesmere in 685 against thePicts.[46]
The so-called "Mercian Supremacy" dominated the 8th century, though it was not constant. Aethelbald andOffa, the two most powerful kings, achieved high status; indeed, Offa was considered the overlord of south Britain byCharlemagne. His power is illustrated by the fact that he summoned the resources to buildOffa's Dyke. However, a rising Wessex, and challenges from smaller kingdoms, kept Mercian power in check, and by the early 9th century the "Mercian Supremacy" was over.
This period has been described as theHeptarchy, though this term has now fallen out of academic use. The term arose because the seven kingdoms ofNorthumbria,Mercia,Kent,East Anglia,Essex,Sussex andWessex were the main polities of south Britain. Other small kingdoms were also politically important across this period:Hwicce,Magonsaete,Lindsey and Middle Anglia.[47]
The first recorded landing ofVikings took place in 787 inDorsetshire, on the south-west coast.[48] The first major attack in Britain was in 793 atLindisfarne monastery as given by theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle. However, by then the Vikings were almost certainly well-established inOrkney andShetland, and many other non-recorded raids probably occurred before this. Records do show the first Viking attack onIona taking place in 794. The arrival of the Vikings (in particular the DanishGreat Heathen Army) upset the political and social geography of Britain and Ireland. In 867Northumbria fell to the Danes;East Anglia fell in 869. ThoughWessex managed to contain the Vikings by defeating them atAshdown in 871, a second invading army landed, leaving the Saxons on a defensive footing. At much the same time,Æthelred, king of Wessex died and was succeeded by his younger brotherAlfred. Alfred was immediately confronted with the task of defending Wessex against the Danes. He spent the first five years of his reign paying the invaders off. In 878, Alfred's forces were overwhelmed at Chippenham in a surprise attack.[49]
It was only now, with the independence of Wessex hanging by a thread, that Alfred emerged as a great king. In May 878 he led a force that defeated the Danes atEdington. The victory was so complete that the Danish leader,Guthrum, was forced to accept Christian baptism and withdraw fromMercia. Alfred then set about strengthening the defences of Wessex, building a new navy—60 vessels strong. Alfred's success bought Wessex and Mercia years of peace and sparked economic recovery in previously ravaged areas.[50]
Alfred's success was sustained by his sonEdward, whose decisive victories over the Danes in East Anglia in 910 and 911 were followed by a crushing victory at Tempsford in 917. These military gains allowed Edward to fully incorporate Mercia into his kingdom and add East Anglia to his conquests. Edward then set about reinforcing his northern borders against the Danishkingdom of Northumbria. Edward's rapid conquest of the English kingdoms meant Wessex received homage from those that remained, includingGwynedd in Wales and Scotland. His dominance was reinforced by his sonÆthelstan, who extended the borders of Wessex northward, in 927 conquering theKingdom of York and leading a land and naval invasion ofScotland. These conquests led to his adopting the title 'King of the English' for the first time.
The dominance and independence of England was maintained by the kings that followed. It was not until 978 and the accession ofÆthelred the Unready that the Danish threat resurfaced. Two powerful Danish kings (Harold Bluetooth and later his sonSweyn) both launched devastating invasions of England. Anglo-Saxon forces were resoundingly defeated atMaldon in 991. More Danish attacks followed, and their victories were frequent. Æthelred's control over his nobles began to falter, and he grew increasingly desperate. His solution was to pay off the Danes: for almost 20 years he paid increasingly large sums to the Danish nobles to keep them from English coasts. These payments, known asDanegelds, crippled the English economy.[51]
Æthelred then made an alliance withNormandy in 1001 through marriage to the Duke's daughterEmma, in the hope of strengthening England. Then he made a great error: in 1002 he ordered the massacre of all the Danes in England. In response, Sweyn began a decade of devastating attacks on England. Northern England, with its sizable Danish population, sided with Sweyn. By 1013, London, Oxford, and Winchester had fallen to the Danes. Æthelred fled toNormandy and Sweyn seized the throne. Sweyn suddenly died in 1014, and Æthelred returned to England, confronted by Sweyn's successor,Cnut. However, in 1016, Æthelred also suddenly died. Cnut swiftly defeated the remaining Saxons, killing Æthelred's sonEdmund in the process. Cnut seized the throne, crowning himself King of England.[52]
Frontispiece ofBede'sLife of St Cuthbert, showing King Æthelstan presenting a copy of the book to the saint himself. c. 930
Alfred of Wessex died in 899 and was succeeded by his sonEdward the Elder. Edward, and his brother-in-lawÆthelred of (what was left of) Mercia, began a programme of expansion, building forts and towns on an Alfredian model. On Æthelred's death, his wife (Edward's sister)Æthelflæd ruled as "Lady of the Mercians" and continued expansion. It seems Edward had his sonÆthelstan brought up in the Mercian court. On Edward's death, Æthelstan succeeded to the Mercian kingdom, and, after some uncertainty, Wessex.
Æthelstan continued the expansion of his father and aunt and was the first king to achieve direct rulership of what we would now consider England. The titles attributed to him incharters and on coins suggest a still more widespread dominance. His expansion aroused ill-feeling among the other kingdoms of Britain, and he defeated a combined Scottish-Viking army at theBattle of Brunanburh. However, the unification of England was not a certainty. Under Æthelstan's successorsEdmund andEadred the English kings repeatedly lost and regained control of Northumbria. Nevertheless,Edgar, who ruled the same expanse as Æthelstan, consolidated the kingdom, which remained united thereafter.
There were renewed Scandinavian attacks on England at the end of the 10th century.Æthelred ruled a long reign but ultimately lost his kingdom toSweyn of Denmark, though he recovered it following the latter's death. However, Æthelred's sonEdmund II Ironside died shortly afterwards, allowingCnut, Sweyn's son, to become king of England. Under his rule the kingdom became the centre of government for theNorth Sea empire which included Denmark and Norway.
Cnut was succeeded by his sons, but in 1042 the native dynasty was restored with the accession ofEdward the Confessor. Edward's failure to produce an heir caused a furious conflict over the succession on his death in 1066. His struggles for power againstGodwin, Earl of Wessex, the claims of Cnut's Scandinavian successors, and the ambitions of theNormans whom Edward introduced to English politics to bolster his own position caused each to vie for control of Edward's reign.
Harold Godwinson became king, probably appointed by Edward on his deathbed and endorsed by theWitan. ButWilliam of Normandy,Harald Hardråde (aided by Harold Godwin's estranged brotherTostig) andSweyn II of Denmark all asserted claims to the throne. By far the strongest hereditary claim was that ofEdgar the Ætheling, but due to his youth and apparent lack of powerful supporters, he did not play a major part in the struggles of 1066, although he was made king for a short time by the Witan after the death of Harold Godwinson.
On 28 September 1066,William of Normandyinvaded England in a campaign called theNorman Conquest. After marching fromYorkshire, Harold's exhausted army was defeated and Harold was killed at theBattle of Hastings on 14 October. Further opposition to William in support ofEdgar the Ætheling soon collapsed, and William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066. For five years, he faced a series of rebellions in various parts of England and a half-hearted Danish invasion, but he subdued them and established an enduring regime.
TheNorman Conquest led to a profound change in the history of the English state. William ordered the compilation of theDomesday Book, a survey of the entire population and their lands and property for tax purposes, which reveals that within 20 years of the conquest the English ruling class had been almost entirely dispossessed and replaced by Norman landholders, who monopolised all senior positions in the government and the Church. William and his nobles spoke and conducted court inNorman French, in both Normandy and England. The use of theAnglo-Norman language by the aristocracy endured for centuries and left an indelible mark in the development of modern English.
Upon being crowned, on Christmas Day 1066, William immediately began consolidating his power. By 1067, he faced revolts on all sides and spent four years crushing them. He then imposed his superiority over Scotland and Wales, forcing them to recognise him as overlord.[53] Economic growth and state finances were aided by thebeginning of Jewish settlement in London.[54]
The EnglishMiddle Ages were characterised bycivil war, international war, occasional insurrection, and widespread political intrigue among the aristocratic and monarchic elite. England was more than self-sufficient in cereals, dairy products, beef and mutton. Its international economy was based onwool trade, in which wool from thesheepwalks of northern England was exported to the textile cities ofFlanders, where it was worked into cloth. Medieval foreign policy was as much shaped by relations with the Flemish textile industry as it was by dynastic adventures in western France. An English textile industry was established in the 15th century, providing the basis for rapid Englishcapital accumulation.
Henry I, the fourth son ofWilliam I the Conqueror, succeeded his elder brotherWilliam II asKing of England in 1100. Henry was also known as "Henry Beauclerc" because he received a formal education, unlike his older brother andheir apparentWilliam who got practical training to be king. Henry worked hard to reform and stabilise the country and smooth the differences between the Anglo-Saxon andAnglo-Norman societies. The loss of his son,William Adelin, in the wreck of theWhite Ship in November 1120, undermined his reforms. This problem regarding succession cast a long shadow over English history.
Henry I had required the leading barons, ecclesiastics and officials in Normandy and England, to take an oath to acceptMatilda (also known as Empress Maud, Henry I's daughter) as his heir. England was far less than enthusiastic to accept an outsider, and a woman, as their ruler.
There is some evidence that Henry was unsure of his own hopes and the oath to make Matilda his heir. Probably Henry hoped Matilda would have a son and step aside as Queen Mother. Upon Henry's death, the Norman and English barons ignored Matilda's claim to the throne, and thus through a series of decisions,Stephen, Henry's favourite nephew, was welcomed by many in England and Normandy as their new king.
On 22 December 1135, Stephen was anointed king with implicit support by the church and nation. Matilda and her own son waited in France until she sparked the civil war from 1139 to 1153 known asthe Anarchy. In the autumn of 1139, she invaded England with her illegitimate half-brotherRobert of Gloucester. Her husband,Geoffroy V of Anjou, conquered Normandy but did not cross the channel to help his wife. During this breakdown of central authority, nobles builtadulterine castles (i.e. castles erected without government permission), which were hated by the peasants, who were forced to build and maintain them.
Stephen was captured, and his government fell. Matilda was proclaimed queen but was soon at odds with her subjects and was expelled from London. The war continued until 1148, when Matilda returned to France. Stephen reigned unopposed until his death in 1154, although his hold on the throne was uneasy. As soon as he regained power, he began to demolish the adulterine castles, but kept a few castles standing, which put him at odds with his heir. His contested reign,civil war, and lawlessness saw a major swing in power towardsfeudalbarons. In trying to appease Scottish and Welsh raiders, he handed over large tracts of land.
Tomb of Richard I of England and Isabella of Angoulême
Empress Matilda andGeoffrey's son, Henry, resumed the invasion; he was already Count of Anjou, Duke of Normandy and Duke of Aquitaine when he landed in England. When Stephen's son and heir apparentEustace died in 1153, Stephen made an agreement with Henry ofAnjou (who becameHenry II) to succeed Stephen and guarantee peace between them. The union was retrospectively named theAngevin Empire. Henry II destroyed the remaining adulterine castles and expanded his power through various means and to different levels into Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Flanders, Nantes, Brittany, Quercy, Toulouse, Bourges and Auvergne.[55]
The reign of Henry II represents a reversion in power from the barony to the monarchical state in England; it also saw a similar redistribution of legislative power from the Church, again to the monarchical state. This period also presaged a properly constituted legislation and a radical shift away fromfeudalism. In his reign, newAnglo-Angevin andAnglo-Aquitanian aristocracies developed, though not to the same degree as theAnglo-Norman once did, and the Norman nobles interacted with their French peers.[56]
Henry's successor,Richard I "the Lion Heart" (also known as "the absent king"), was preoccupied with foreign wars, taking part in theThird Crusade, being captured while returning and pledging fealty to theHoly Roman Empire as part of his ransom,[57] and defending his French territories against Philip II of France.[58] His successor, his younger brotherJohn, lost much of those territories including Normandy following the disastrousBattle of Bouvines in 1214,[59] despite having made theKingdom of England a tribute-paying vassal of theHoly See in 1212,[60] which it remained until the 14th century when the Kingdom rejected the overlordship of the Holy See and re-established its sovereignty.[61] The first anti-Semitic pogroms occurred in the wake of Richard's crusades, in 1189–90, in York and elsewhere. In York, 150 Jews died.[62]
From 1212 onwards, John had a constant policy of maintaining close relations with the Pope, which partially explains how he persuaded the Pope to reject the legitimacy ofMagna Carta.[63]
Over the course of his reign, a combination of higher taxes, unsuccessful wars and conflict with the Pope made King John unpopular with his barons. In 1215, some of the most important barons rebelled against him. He met their leaders along with their French and Scot allies atRunnymede, near London on 15 June 1215 to seal the Great Charter (Magna Carta inLatin), which imposed legal limits on the king's personal powers. But as soon as hostilities ceased, John received approval from the Pope to break his word because he had made it under duress. This provoked theFirst Barons' War and a French invasion byPrince Louis of France invited by a majority of the English barons to replace John as king in London in May 1216. John travelled around the country to oppose the rebel forces, directing, among other operations, a two-month siege of the rebel-heldRochester Castle.[64]
John's son,Henry III, was only 9 years old when he became king (1216–1272). He spent much of his reign fighting the barons over Magna Carta[65] and the royal rights, and was eventually forced to call the first "parliament" in 1264. He was also unsuccessful on the continent, where he endeavoured to re-establish English control overNormandy,Anjou, andAquitaine.[66][67]
His reign was punctuated by many rebellions and civil wars, often provoked by incompetence and mismanagement in government and Henry's perceived over-reliance on French courtiers (thus restricting the influence of the English nobility). One of these rebellions—led by a disaffected courtier,Simon de Montfort—was notable for its assembly of one of the earliest precursors toParliament. In addition to fighting theSecond Barons' War, Henry III made war against Louis IX and was defeated during theSaintonge War, yet Louis did not capitalise on his victory, respecting his opponent's rights.[66]
Henry III's policies towards Jews began with relative tolerance, but became gradually more restrictive. In 1253 theStatute of Jewry reinforced physical segregation and demanded a previously notional requirement to wear square white badges.[68] Henry III also backed an accusation of child murder in Lincoln, ordering a Jew Copin to be executed and 91 Jews to be arrested for trial; 18 were killed. Popular superstitious fears were fuelled, and Catholic theological hostility combined with Baronial abuse of loan arrangements, resulting inSimon de Montfort's supporters targeting of Jewish communities in theirrevolt. This hostility, violence and controversy was the background to the increasingly oppressive measures that followed under Edward I.[69]
The reign ofEdward I (reigned 1272–1307) was rather more successful. Edward enacted numerous laws strengthening the powers of his government, and he summoned the first officially sanctionedParliaments of England (such as hisModel Parliament).[70] Heconquered Wales[71] and attempted to use a succession dispute to gain control of theKingdom of Scotland, though this developed into a costly and drawn-out military campaign.
Edward I is also known for his policies first persecuting Jews, particularly the 1275Statute of the Jewry. This banned Jews from their previous role in making loans, and demanded that they work as merchants, farmers, craftsmen or soldiers. This was unrealistic, and failed.[72] Edward's solution was toexpel Jews from England.[69][73][74] This was the first statewide, permanent expulsion in Europe.[4][75][76][7]
His son,Edward II, was considered a disaster by other nobles. A man who preferred to engage in activities like thatching and ditch-digging[77] and associating with the lower class rather than the activities considered appropriate for the upper class such as jousting, hunting, or the usual entertainments of kings, he spent most of his reign trying in vain to control the nobility, who in return showed continual hostility to him. Meanwhile, the Scottish leaderRobert Bruce began retaking all the territory conquered by Edward I. In 1314, the English army was disastrously defeated by the Scots at theBattle of Bannockburn. Edward also showered favours on his companionPiers Gaveston, a knight of humble birth. While it has been widely believed that Edward was homosexual because of his closeness to Gaveston, there is no concrete evidence of this. The king's enemies, including his cousinThomas of Lancaster, captured and murdered Gaveston in 1312.
TheGreat Famine of 1315–1317 may have resulted in half a million deaths in England due to hunger and disease, more than 10 per cent of the population.[78]
Edward's downfall came in 1326 when his wife,Queen Isabella, travelled to her native France and, with her loverRoger Mortimer,invaded England. Despite their tiny force, they quickly rallied support for their cause. The king fled London, and his companion since Piers Gaveston's death,Hugh Despenser, was publicly tried and executed. Edward was captured, charged with breaking his coronation oath,deposed and imprisoned in Gloucestershire until he was murdered some time in the autumn of 1327, presumably by agents of Isabella and Mortimer.
Edward III, son of Edward II, was crowned at age 14 after his father wasdeposed by his mother andRoger Mortimer. At age 17, he led a successful coup against Mortimer, thede facto ruler of the country, and began his personal reign.Edward III reigned 1327–1377, restored royal authority and went on to transform England into the most efficient military power in Europe. His reign saw vital developments in legislature and government—in particular the evolution of the English parliament—as well as the ravages of theBlack Death. After defeating, but not subjugating, theKingdom of Scotland, he declared himself rightful heir to the French throne in 1338, but his claim was denied due to theSalic law. This started what would become known as theHundred Years' War.[79] Following some initial setbacks, the war went exceptionally well for England; victories atCrécy andPoitiers led to the highly favourableTreaty of Brétigny. Edward's later years were marked by international failure and domestic strife, largely as a result of his inactivity and poor health.
For many years, trouble had been brewing withCastile—a Spanish kingdom whose navy had taken to raiding English merchant ships in theChannel. Edward won amajor naval victory against a Castilian fleet offWinchelsea in 1350.[80] Although the Castilian crossbowmen killed many of the enemy,[81] the English gradually got the better of the encounter. In spite of Edward's success, however, Winchelsea was only a flash in a conflict that raged between the English and the Spanish for over 200 years,[82] coming to a head with the defeats of theSpanish Armada and theEnglish Armada in 1588 and 1589.[83][84]
Edward III died of a stroke on 21 June 1377, and was succeeded by his ten-year-old grandson,Richard II. He marriedAnne of Bohemia, daughter ofCharles IV, Holy Roman Emperor in 1382, and ruled until he was deposed by his first cousinHenry IV in 1399.In 1381, aPeasants' Revolt led byWat Tyler spread across large parts of England. It was suppressed by Richard II, with the death of 1500 rebels.
The Black Death, an epidemic ofbubonic plague that spread all over Europe, arrived in England in 1348 and killed as much as a third to half the population. Military conflicts during this period were usually with domestic neighbours such as the Welsh, Irish, and Scots, and included theHundred Years' War against the French and theirScottish allies. Notable English victories in the Hundred Years' War includedCrécy andAgincourt. The final defeat of the uprising led by the Welsh prince,Owain Glyndŵr, in 1412 by Prince Henry (who later becameHenry V) represents the last major armed attempt by the Welsh to throw off English rule.
Edward III gave land to powerful noble families, including many people of royal lineage. Because land was equivalent to power, these powerful men could try to claim the crown. When Edward III died in 1377, he was succeeded by his grandson,Richard II. Richard's autocratic and arrogant methods only served to alienate the nobility more, and his forceful dispossession in 1399 byHenry IV increased the turmoil.
Henry spent much of his reign defending himself against plots, rebellions and assassination attempts.
Rebellions continued throughout the first ten years of Henry's reign, including the revolt ofOwain Glyndŵr, who declared himselfPrince of Wales in 1400, and the rebellion ofHenry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland. The king's success in putting down these rebellions was due partly to the military ability of his eldest son,Henry of Monmouth,[85] who later became king (though the son managed to seize much effective power from his father in 1410).
Henry V succeeded to the throne in 1413. He renewed hostilities with France and began a set of military campaigns which are considered a new phase of theHundred Years' War, referred to as theLancastrian War. He won several notable victories over the French, including theBattle of Agincourt. In theTreaty of Troyes, Henry V was given the power to succeed the current ruler of France,Charles VI of France. The Treaty also provided that he would marry Charles VI's daughter,Catherine of Valois. They married in 1421. Henry died of dysentery in 1422, leaving a number of unfulfilled plans, including his plan to take over as King of France and to lead a crusade to retake Jerusalem from the Muslims.
Henry V's son,Henry VI, became king in 1422 as an infant. His reign was marked by constant turmoil due to his political weaknesses. While he was growing up, England was ruled by theRegency government.
The Regency Council tried to install Henry VI as the King of France, as provided by the Treaty of Troyes signed by his father, and led English forces to take over areas of France. It appeared they might succeed due to the poor political position of the son of Charles VI, who had claimed to be the rightful king asCharles VII of France. However, in 1429,Joan of Arc began a military effort to prevent the English from gaining control of France. The French forces regained control of French territory.
In 1437, Henry VI came of age and began to actively rule as king. To forge peace, he married French noblewomanMargaret of Anjou in 1445, as provided in theTreaty of Tours. Hostilities with France resumed in 1449. When England lost theHundred Years' War in August 1453, Henry fell into mental breakdown until Christmas 1454.
Henry could not control the feuding nobles, and a series of civil wars known as theWars of the Roses began, lasting from 1455 to 1485. Although the fighting was very sporadic and small, there was a general breakdown in the power of the Crown. The royal court and Parliament moved to Coventry, in the Lancastrian heartlands, which thus became the capital of England until 1461. Henry's cousinEdward, Duke of York, deposed Henry in 1461 to become Edward IV following aLancastrian defeat at theBattle of Mortimer's Cross. Edward was later briefly expelled from the throne in 1470–1471 whenRichard Neville, Earl of Warwick, brought Henry back to power. Six months later, Edward defeated and killed Warwick in battle and reclaimed the throne. Henry was imprisoned in the Tower of London and died there.
Edward died in 1483, only 40 years old, his reign having gone a little way to restoring the power of the Crown. His eldest son and heirEdward V, aged 12, could not succeed him because the king's brother,Richard III, Duke of Gloucester, declared Edward IV's marriage bigamous, making all his children illegitimate. Richard III was then declared king, and Edward V and his 10-year-old brother Richard wereimprisoned in the Tower of London. The two were never seen again. It was widely believed that Richard III had them murdered and he was reviled as a treacherous fiend, which limited his ability to govern during his brief reign. In summer 1485,Henry Tudor, the last Lancastrian male, returned from exile in France and landed in Wales. Henry then defeated and killed Richard III atBosworth Field on 22 August, and was crowned Henry VII.
Portrait of theRoyal Tudors. At left, Henry VII, with Prince Arthur behind him, then Prince Henry (later Henry VIII), and Prince Edmund, who did not survive early childhood. To the right is Elizabeth of York, with Princess Margaret, then Princess Elizabeth who didn't survive childhood, Princess Mary, and Princess Katherine, who died shortly after her birth.
TheTudor period coincides with the dynasty of theHouse of Tudor in England that began with the reign ofHenry VII. Henry engaged in a number of administrative, economic and diplomatic initiatives. He paid very close attention to detail and, instead of spending lavishly, concentrated on raising new revenues.[86][87] Henry was successful in restoring power and stability to the nation's monarchy following the civil war. His supportive policy toward England's wool industry and his standoff with theLow Countries had long-lasting benefit to the economy of England. He restored the nation's finances and strengthened its judicial system.[88] TheRenaissance reached England through Italian courtiers, who reintroduced artistic, educational and scholarly debate from classical antiquity.[89] England began to developnaval skills, and exploration intensified in theAge of Discovery.[90][91]
WithHenry VII's accession to the throne in 1485, the Wars of the Roses came to an end, and Tudors would continue to rule England for 118 years. Traditionally, theBattle of Bosworth Field is considered to mark the end of the Middle Ages in England, although Henry did not introduce any new concept of monarchy, and for most of his reign his hold on power was tenuous. He claimed the throne by conquest and God's judgement in battle. Parliament quickly recognised him as king, but the Yorkists were far from defeated. Nonetheless, he married Edward IV's eldest daughter Elizabeth in January 1486, thereby uniting the houses of York and Lancaster.
Most of the European rulers did not believe Henry would survive long, and were thus willing to shelter claimants against him. The first plot against him was theStafford and Lovell rebellion of 1486, which presented no serious threat. But Richard III's nephewJohn de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, hatched another attempt the following year. Using a peasant boy namedLambert Simnel, who posed asEdward, Earl of Warwick (the real Warwick was locked up in the Tower of London), he led an army of 2,000 German mercenaries paid for byMargaret of Burgundy into England. They were defeated and de la Pole was killed at the difficultBattle of Stoke, where the loyalty of some of the royal troops to Henry was questionable. The king, realizing that Simnel was a dupe, employed him in the royal kitchen.
A more serious threat wasPerkin Warbeck, a Flemish youth who posed as Edward IV's son Richard. Again with support from Margaret of Burgundy, he invaded England four times from 1495 to 1497 before he was captured and imprisoned in the Tower of London. Both Warbeck and the Earl of Warwick were dangerous even in captivity, and Henry executed them in 1499 before Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain would allow their daughter Catherine to come to England and marry his son Arthur.
In 1497, Henry defeated Cornish rebels marching on London. The rest of his reign was relatively peaceful, despite worries about succession after the death of his wifeElizabeth of York in 1503.
Henry VII's foreign policy was peaceful. He had made an alliance with Spain and the Holy Roman EmperorMaximilian I, but in 1493, when they went to war with France, England was dragged into the conflict. Impoverished and his hold on power insecure, Henry had no desire for war. He quickly reached an understanding with the French and renounced all claims to their territory except the port of Calais, realizing also that he could not stop them from incorporating the Duchy of Brittany. In return, the French agreed to recognize him as king and stop sheltering pretenders. Shortly afterwards, they became preoccupied with adventures in Italy. Henry also reached an understanding with Scotland, agreeing to marry his daughter Margaret to that country's kingJames IV.
Upon becoming king, Henry inherited a government severely weakened and degraded by the Wars of the Roses. The treasury was empty, having been drained by Edward IV's Woodville in-laws after his death. Through a tight fiscal policy and sometimes ruthless tax collection and confiscations, Henry refilled the treasury by the time of his death. He also effectively rebuilt the machinery of government.
In 1501, the king's sonArthur, having marriedCatherine of Aragon, died of illness at age 15, leaving his younger brotherHenry, Duke of York as heir. When the king himself died in 1509, the position of the Tudors was secure at last, and his son succeeded him unopposed.
Henry VIII began his reign with much optimism. The handsome, athletic young king stood in sharp contrast to his wary, miserly father. Henry's lavish court quickly drained the treasury of the fortune he inherited. He married the widowedCatherine of Aragon, and they had several children, but none survived infancy except a daughter,Mary.
In 1512, the young king started awar in France. Although England was an ally of Spain, one of France's principal enemies, the war was mostly about Henry's desire for personal glory, despite his sisterMary being married to the French kingLouis XII. The war accomplished little. The English army suffered badly from disease, and Henry was not even present at the one notable victory, theBattle of the Spurs. Meanwhile,James IV of Scotland (despite being Henry's other brother-in-law), activated his alliance with the French and declared war on England. While Henry was dallying in France, Catherine, who was serving as regent in his absence, and his advisers were left to deal with this threat. At theBattle of Flodden on 9 September 1513, the Scots were completely defeated. James and most of the Scottish nobles were killed. When Henry returned from France, he was given credit for the victory.
Eventually, Catherine was no longer able to have any more children. The king became increasingly nervous about the possibility of his daughter Mary inheriting the throne, as England's one experience with a female sovereign, Matilda in the 12th century, had been a catastrophe. He eventually decided that it was necessary to divorce Catherine and find a new queen. To persuade the Church to allow this, Henry cited the passage in theBook of Leviticus: "If a man taketh his brother's wife, he hath committed adultery; they shall be childless". However, Catherine insisted that she and Arthur never consummated their brief marriage and that the prohibition did not apply here. The timing of Henry's case was very unfortunate; it was 1527 and the Pope had been imprisoned by emperorCharles V, Catherine's nephew and the most powerful man in Europe, for siding with his archenemyFrancis I of France. Because he could not divorce in these circumstances, Henry seceded from the Church, in what became known as theEnglish Reformation.
The newly establishedChurch of England amounted to little more than the existing Catholic Church, but led by the king rather than the Pope. It took a number of years for the separation from Rome to be completed, and many were executed for resisting the king's religious policies.
In 1530, Catherine was banished from court and spent the rest of her life (until her death in 1536) alone in an isolated manor home, barred from contact with Mary. Secret correspondence continued thanks to her ladies-in-waiting. Their marriage was declared invalid, making Mary an illegitimate child. Henry marriedAnne Boleyn secretly in January 1533, just as his divorce from Catherine was finalised. They had a second, public wedding. Anne soon became pregnant and may have already been when they wed. But on 7 September 1533, she gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth. The king was devastated at his failure to obtain a son after all the effort it had taken to remarry. Gradually, he came to develop a disliking of his new queen for her strange behaviour. In 1536, when Anne was pregnant again, Henry was badly injured in a jousting accident. Shaken by this, the queen gave birth prematurely to a stillborn boy. By now, the king was convinced that his marriage was hexed, and having already found a new queen, Jane Seymour, he put Anne in the Tower of London on charges of witchcraft. Afterwards, she was beheaded along with five men (her brother included) accused of adultery with her. The marriage was then declared invalid, so that Elizabeth, just like her half sister, became a bastard.
Henry immediately marriedJane Seymour, who became pregnant almost as quickly. On 12 October 1537, she gave birth to a healthy boy, Edward, which was greeted with huge celebrations. However, the queen died ofpuerperal sepsis ten days later. Henry genuinely mourned her death, and at his own passing nine years later, he was buried next to her.
The king married a fourth time in 1540, to the GermanAnne of Cleves for a political alliance with her Protestant brother, theDuke of Cleves. He also hoped to obtain another son in case something should happen to Edward. Anne proved a dull, unattractive woman and Henry did not consummate the marriage. He quickly divorced her, and she remained in England as a kind of adopted sister to him. He married again, to a 19-year-old namedCatherine Howard. But when it became known that she was neither a virgin at the wedding, nor a faithful wife afterwards, she ended up on the scaffold and the marriage declared invalid. His sixth and last marriage was toCatherine Parr, who was more his nursemaid than anything else, as his health was failing since his jousting accident in 1536.
In 1542, the king started a new campaign in France, but unlike in 1512, he only managed with great difficulty. He only conquered the city of Boulogne, which France retook in 1549. Scotland also declared war and atSolway Moss was again totally defeated.
Henry's paranoia and suspicion worsened in his last years. The number of executions during his 38-year reign numbered tens of thousands. His domestic policies had strengthened royal authority to the detriment of the aristocracy, and led to a safer realm, but his foreign policy adventures did not increase England's prestige abroad and wrecked royal finances and the national economy, and embittered the Irish.[92] He died in January 1547 at age 55 and was succeeded by his son, Edward VI.
Although he showed piety and intelligence,Edward VI was only nine years old when he became king in 1547.[92] His uncle,Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset tampered withHenry VIII's will and obtainedletters patent giving him much of the power of a monarch by March 1547. He took the title of Protector. While some see him as a high-minded idealist, his stay in power culminated in a crisis in 1549 when many counties of the realm were up in protest.Kett's Rebellion in Norfolk and thePrayer Book Rebellion inDevon andCornwall simultaneously created a crisis while invasion from Scotland and France were feared. Somerset, disliked by the Regency Council for being autocratic, was removed from power byJohn Dudley, who is known asLord President Northumberland. Northumberland proceeded to adopt the power for himself, but he was more conciliatory and the Council accepted him. During Edward's reign England changed from being a Catholic nation to a Protestant one, in schism from Rome.
Edward showed great promise but fell violently ill oftuberculosis in 1553 and died that August, at the age of 15 years, 8 months.[92]
Northumberland made plans to placeLady Jane Grey on the throne and marry her to his son, so that he could remain the power behind the throne. His plot failed in a matter of days, Jane Grey was beheaded, andMary I (1516–1558) took the throne amidst popular demonstration in her favour in London, which contemporaries described as the largest show of affection for a Tudor monarch. Mary had never been expected to hold the throne, at least not since Edward was born. She was a devoted Catholic who believed that she could reverse the Reformation.[93]
Returning England to Catholicism led to the burnings of 274 Protestants, which are recorded especially inJohn Foxe'sBook of Martyrs. Mary then married her cousinPhilip, son ofEmperor Charles V, and King of Spain when Charles abdicated in 1556. The union was difficult because Mary was already in her late 30s and Philip was a Catholic and a foreigner, and so not very welcome in England. This wedding also provoked hostility from France, already at war with Spain and now fearing being encircled by the Habsburgs. Calais, the last English outpost on the Continent, was then taken by France. King Philip (1527–1598) had very little power, although he did protect Elizabeth. He was not popular in England, and spent little time there.[94] Mary eventually became pregnant, or at least believed herself to be. In reality, she may have haduterine cancer. Her death in November 1558 was greeted with huge celebrations in the streets of London.
After Mary I died in 1558,Elizabeth I came to the throne. Her reign restored a sort of order to the realm after the turbulent reigns of Edward VI and Mary I. The religious issue which had divided the country since Henry VIII was in a way put to rest by theElizabethan Religious Settlement, which re-established theChurch of England. Much of Elizabeth's success was in balancing the interests of thePuritans and Catholics; historian Robert Bucholz paraphrasing historian Conrad Russell, suggested that the genius of the Church of England was that it "thinks Protestant but looks Catholic."[92] She managed to offend neither to a large extent, although she clamped down on Catholics towards the end of her reign as war with Catholic Spain loomed.[95][96]
Despite the need for an heir, Elizabeth declined to marry, despite offers from a number of suitors across Europe, including the Swedish kingErik XIV. This created endless worries over her succession, especially in the 1560s when she nearly died of smallpox. It has been often rumoured that she had a number of lovers (includingFrancis Drake), but there is no hard evidence.
Elizabeth maintained relative government stability. Apart from theRevolt of the Northern Earls in 1569, she was effective in reducing the power of the old nobility and expanding the power of her government. Elizabeth's government did much to consolidate the work begun underThomas Cromwell in the reign of Henry VIII, that is, expanding the role of the government and effecting common law and administration throughout England. During the reign of Elizabeth and shortly afterwards, the population grew significantly: from three million in 1564 to nearly five million in 1616.[97]
The queen ran afoul of her cousinMary, Queen of Scots, who was a devoted Catholic and so was forced to abdicate her throne (Scotland hadrecently become Protestant). She fled to England, where Elizabeth immediately had her arrested. Mary spent the next 19 years in confinement, but proved too dangerous to keep alive, as the Catholic powers in Europe considered her the legitimate ruler of England. She was eventually tried for treason, sentenced to death, and beheaded in February 1587.
The Elizabethan era was the epoch in English history of QueenElizabeth I's reign (1558–1603). Historians often depict it as thegolden age in English history. The symbol ofBritannia was first used in 1572 and often thereafter to mark the Elizabethan age as a renaissance that inspired national pride through classical ideals, international expansion, and naval triumph over the hated Spanish foe. In terms of the entire century, the historianJohn Guy (1988) argues that "England was economically healthier, more expansive, and more optimistic under theTudors" than at any time in a thousand years.[98]
This "golden age"[99] represented the apogee of theEnglish Renaissance and saw the flowering of poetry, music and literature. The era is most famous fortheatre, asWilliam Shakespeare and many others composed plays that broke free of England's past style of theatre. It was an age of exploration and expansion abroad, while back at home, the ProtestantReformation became more acceptable to the people, most certainly after theSpanish Armada was repulsed. It was also the end of the period when England was a separate realm before its royal union with Scotland.
The Elizabethan Age is viewed so highly largely because of the periods before and after. It was a brief period of largely internal peace after the horrible violence and disorder of theWars of the Roses, and battles between Catholics and Protestants during theEnglish Reformation; and it preceded the violent turmoil of theEnglish Civil War and battles betweenparliament and the monarchy during the 17th century. The Protestant/Catholic divide was settled, for a time, by theElizabethan Religious Settlement, and parliament was not yet strong enough to challenge royal absolutism.
England was also well off compared to the other nations of Europe. TheItalian Renaissance had ended due to foreign domination of the peninsula. France was embroiled in religious battles until theEdict of Nantes in 1598. Also, the English had been expelled from their last outposts on the continent. Due to these reasons, the centuries long conflict with France was largely suspended for most of Elizabeth's reign. England during this period had a centralised, organised and effective government, largely due to the reforms ofHenry VII andHenry VIII. Economically, the country began to benefit greatly from the new era oftrans-Atlantic trade.
Sir Francis Drake's voyage 1585–86
In 1585 worsening relations betweenPhilip II of Spain and Elizabeth erupted into war. Elizabeth signed theTreaty of Nonsuch with the Dutch and permittedFrancis Drake to maraud in response to a Spanish embargo. Drake surprisedVigo, Spain, in October, then proceeded to theCaribbean andsacked Santo Domingo (the capital of Spain's American empire and the present-day capital of the Dominican Republic)and Cartagena (a large and wealthy port on the north coast of Colombia that was the centre of the silver trade). Philip II tried to invade England with theSpanish Armada in 1588 but was famously defeated.
The Armada was not just a naval campaign. The build-up of land forces to resist a Spanish invasion has been described as an administrative feat of massive scope. A survey taken in November and December 1587 showed 130,000 men in the militia, of whom 44,000 were members of the trained bands, being drilled and led by experienced captains and sergeants. By May 1588 the London bands were drilling weekly. To give warning of the enemy's approach, beacons were built, manned twenty-four hours a day by four men. Once the beacons were lit, 72,000 men could be mobilised on the south coast, with another 46,000 protecting London. For the many Englishmen caught up in the Armada the experience must have been very profound and frightening. Some shared the intimacy of beacon watching, hoping for the best, but ready to light their warning fires in case of the worst.[100]Deloney, a London silkweaver, played on their fears in his"New Ballet [Ballad] on the strange whippes which the Spanyards had prepared to whippe English men" (1588).[100] The political philosopherThomas Hobbes recalled that his mother was so frightened that she prematurely gave birth to twins, of whom he was one.[100] All were terrified about what might happen if the Spanish invaded.[100] Stories of theSack of Antwerp in 1576, in which the Spanish led bySancho d'Avila raped, tortured and murdered as many as 17,000 civilians, were grist for playwrights and pamphleteers such asGeorge Gascoigne andShakespeare.[100] The former remembered seeing civilians atAntwerp drowned, burned, or with guts hanging out as if they had been used for an anatomy lesson.[100] Few Englishmen, women and children doubted they faced similar fates had the Armada landed.[100]
The Spanish Armada and English ships in August 1588, (unknown, 16th-century, English School)
In foreign policy, Elizabeth played against each other the major powers France and Spain, as well as the papacy and Scotland. These were all Catholic and each wanted to end Protestantism in England. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs and only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France and Ireland. She risked war with Spain by supporting the "Sea Dogs", such asWalter Raleigh,John Hawkins and SirFrancis Drake, who preyed on Spanish merchant ships carrying gold and silver from the New World. Drake himself became a hero—being the firstEnglishman to circumnavigate the world between 1577 and 1580, having plundered Spanish settlements and treasure ships.
Themajor war came with Spain, 1585–1603. When Spain tried to invade and conquer England it was a fiasco, and the defeat of theSpanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth's name with what is popularly viewed as one of the greatest victories in English history. Her enemies failed to combine and Elizabeth's foreign policy successfully navigated all the dangers.[101] The following year, anEnglish Armada, also known as the Counter Armada or the Drake–Norris Expedition, of a similar size to the Spanish one, was sent against Spain in order to drive home the advantage that England had gained. Led bySir Francis Drake as admiral andSir John Norris as general, it was however also a disaster.[102] In 1596, England sent theirsecond Armada to Cádiz, led byCharles Howard and theEarl of Essex the campaign was a signal victory. In revenge, Spain sent theirsecond Spanish Armada to England a few months later, but this was met with disaster by storms before it saw England. Undeterred, athird Armada was sent the following year but near the English coast another storm dispersed the fleet, losing more ships sunk or captured.[103]
The War ended with both sides seeking peace in order to stop the costly conflict with theTreaty of London in 1604, which validated thestatus quo ante bellum.[104][105] It amounted to an acknowledgement by Spain that its hopes of restoringRoman Catholicism in England were at an end and it had to recognise theProtestant monarchy in England. In return, England ended its financial and military support for the Dutch rebellion, ongoing since theTreaty of Nonsuch (1585), and had to end its wartime disruption of Spanish trans-Atlantic shipping and colonial expansion.
In all, theTudor period is seen as a decisive one which set up many important questions which would have to be answered in the next century and during theEnglish Civil War. These were questions of the relative power of the monarch and Parliament and to what extent one should control the other. Some historians think that Thomas Cromwell affected a "Tudor Revolution" in government, and it is certain that Parliament became more important during his chancellorship. Other historians argue that the "Tudor Revolution" extended to the end of Elizabeth's reign, when the work was all consolidated. Although thePrivy Council declined after Elizabeth's death, it was very effective while she was alive.
When Elizabeth died, her closest male Protestant relative was theKing of Scots,James VI, of theHouse of Stuart, who became King James I of England in aUnion of the Crowns, called James I and VI. He was the first monarch to rule the entire island of Britain, but the countries remained separate politically. Upon taking power, James made peace with Spain, and for the first half of the 17th century, England remained largely inactive in European politics. Several assassination attempts were made on James, notably theMain Plot andBye Plots of 1603, and most famously, on 5 November 1605, theGunpowder Plot, by a group of Catholic conspirators, led byRobert Catesby, which caused more antipathy in England towards Catholicism.
In 1607 England built anestablishment at Jamestown. This was the beginning of colonialism by England in North America. Many English settled then in North America for religious or economic reasons. Approximately 70% of English immigrants to North America who came between 1630 and 1660 wereindentured servants. By 1700,Chesapeake planters transported about 100,000 indentured servants,[106] who accounted for more than 75% of all European immigrants to Virginia and Maryland.[107]
TheFirst English Civil War broke out in 1642, largely due to ongoing conflicts between James' son,Charles I, andParliament. The defeat of the Royalist army by theNew Model Army of Parliament at theBattle of Naseby in June 1645 effectively destroyed the king's forces. Charles surrendered to the Scottish army at Newark. He was eventually handed over to the English Parliament in early 1647. He escaped, and theSecond English Civil War began, but the New Model Army quickly secured the country. The capture and trial of Charles led to theexecution of Charles I in January 1649 atWhitehall Gate in London, making England a republic. This shocked the rest of Europe. The king argued to the end that only God could judge him.
The New Model Army, commanded byOliver Cromwell, then scored decisive victories against Royalist armies in Ireland and Scotland. Cromwell was given the titleLord Protector in 1653, making him 'king in all but name' to his critics. After he died in 1658, his sonRichard Cromwell succeeded him in the office but he was forced to abdicate within a year. For a while it seemed as if a new civil war would begin as the New Model Army split into factions. Troops stationed in Scotland under the command ofGeorge Monck eventually marched on London to restore order.
According toDerek Hirst, outside of politics and religion, the 1640s and 1650s saw a revived economy characterised by growth in manufacturing, the elaboration of financial and credit instruments, and the commercialisation of communication. The gentry found time for leisure activities, such as horse racing and bowling. In the high culture important innovations included the development of a mass market for music, increased scientific research, and an expansion of publishing. All the trends were discussed in depth at the newly established coffee houses.[108]
The monarchy was restored in 1660, with KingCharles II returning to London. However, the power of the crown was less than before the Civil War. By the 18th century, England rivaled the Netherlands as one of the freest countries in Europe.[109]
In 1665, London was swept by theplague, and in 1666 by theGreat Fire for 5 days which destroyed about 15,000 buildings.
In 1680, theExclusion Crisis consisted of attempts to prevent accession of James, heir to Charles II, because he was Catholic. After Charles II died in 1685 and his younger brother,James II and VII was crowned, various factions pressed for his Protestant daughterMary and her husbandPrince William III of Orange to replace him in what became known as theGlorious Revolution.
In December 1689, one of the most important constitutional documents in English history, theBill of Rights, was passed.[110] The Bill, which restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlierDeclaration of Right, established restrictions on theroyal prerogative. For example, the Sovereign could not suspend laws passed by Parliament, levy taxes without parliamentary consent, infringe the right to petition, raise a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary consent, deny the right to bear arms to Protestant subjects, unduly interfere with parliamentary elections, punish members of either House of Parliament for anything said during debates, require excessive bail or inflict cruel and unusual punishments.[111] William was opposed to such constraints, but chose to avoid conflict with Parliament and agreed to the statute.[112]
In parts of Scotland and Ireland, Catholics loyal to James remained determined to see him restored to the throne, and staged a series of bloody uprisings. As a result, any failure to pledge loyalty to the victorious King William was severely dealt with. The most infamous example of this policy was theMassacre of Glencoe in 1692.Jacobite rebellions continued into the mid-18th century until the son of the last Catholic claimant to the throne,James III and VIII, mounted afinal campaign in 1745. The Jacobite forces of PrinceCharles Edward Stuart, the "Bonnie Prince Charlie" of legend, were defeated at theBattle of Culloden in 1746.
The two countries had shared a monarch since theUnion of the Crowns in 1603, whenKing James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne from his double first cousin twice removed, QueenElizabeth I. Although described as a Union of Crowns, until 1707 there were in fact two separate Crowns resting on the same head. There had been three attempts in 1606, 1667, and 1689 to unite the two countries by Acts of Parliament, but it was not until the early 18th century that the idea had the will of both political establishments behind them, albeit for rather different reasons.
The Acts took effect on 1 May 1707. On this date, the English Parliament and the Scottish Parliament united to form the Parliament of Great Britain, based in thePalace of Westminster in London, the home of the English Parliament.[114] Hence, the Acts are referred to as theUnion of the Parliaments. On the Union, historianSimon Schama said "What began as a hostile merger, would end in a full partnership in the most powerful going concern in the world ... it was one of the most astonishing transformations in European history."[115]
The first general laws against child labour, theFactory Acts, were passed in Britain in the first half of the 19th century. Children younger than nine were not allowed to work and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours.[117]
TheAct of Union of 1800 formally assimilated Ireland within the British political process and from 1 January 1801 created a newstate called theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, which united Great Britain with theKingdom of Ireland to form a single political entity. The English parliament at Westminster became the parliament of the Union.
Following the formation of Great Britain, the history of England is no longer the history of a sovereign nation, but rather the history of one of thecountries of the United Kingdom.
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, technological advances and mechanisation resulted in theIndustrial Revolution which transformed a largely agrarian society and caused considerable social upheaval.Economies of scale and increased output per worker allowed steam-based factories to undercut production of traditional cottage industries. Much of the agricultural workforce was uprooted from the countryside and moved into large urban centres of production. The consequent overcrowding into areas with little supporting infrastructure saw dramatic increases in mortality, crime, and social deprivation. (Many Sunday schools for pre-working-age children (5 or 6) had funeral clubs to pay for each other's funeral arrangements.) The process of industrialisation threatened many livelihoods, which prompted some to sabotage factories. These saboteurs were known as "Luddites".
TheLocal Government Act 1888 was the first systematic attempt to impose a standardised system of local government in England. The system was based on the existing counties (today known as thehistoric counties, since the major boundary changes of 1974). Later, theLocal Government Act 1894 created a second tier of local government. All administrative counties and county boroughs were divided into either rural or urban districts, allowing more localised administration.
During the 1800s, the need for local administration greatly increased, prompting piecemeal adjustments. The sanitary districts and parish councils had legal status, but were not part of the mechanism of government. They were run by volunteers; often no-one could be held responsible for the failure to undertake the required duties. Furthermore, the increased "county business" could not be handled by thequarter sessions, nor was this appropriate. Finally, there was a desire to see local administration performed by elected officials, as in the reformed municipal boroughs. By 1888, these shortcomings were clear, and theLocal Government Act was the first systematic attempt to create a standardised system of local government in England.
The system was based on the existing counties (now known as thehistoric counties, since the major boundary changes of 1974). The counties themselves had had some boundary changes in the preceding 50 years, mainly to remove enclaves and exclaves. The act called for the creation of statutory counties, based on the ancient/historic counties, but completely corrected for enclaves and exclaves, and adjusted so that each settlement was completely within one county. These statutory counties were to be used for non-administrative functions:"sheriff,lieutenant,custos rotulorum, justices, militia, coroner, or other". With the advent of elected councils, the offices of lord lieutenant and sheriff became largely ceremonial.
The statutory counties formed the basis for the so-called 'administrative counties'. However, it was felt that large cities and primarily rural areas in the same county could not be well administered by the same body. Thus, 59 "counties in themselves", or 'county boroughs', were created to administer the urban centres of England. These were part of the statutory counties, but not part of the administrative counties.
In 1894, the Local Government Act created a second tier of local government. Henceforth, all administrative counties and county boroughs would be divided into either rural or urban districts, allowing more localised administration. The municipal boroughs reformed after 1835 were brought into this system as special cases of urban districts. The urban and rural districts were based on, and incorporated thesanitary districts which created in 1875 (with adjustments, so that districts did not overlap two counties).
The Act also provided for the establishment ofcivil parishes. The 1894 Act formed an official system of civil parishes, separated from the ecclesiastical parishes, to carry on some of these responsibilities (others being transferred to the district/county councils). However, the civil parishes were not a complete third tier of local government. Instead, they were 'community councils' for smaller, rural settlements, which did not have a local government district to themselves. Where urban parish councils had previously existed, they were absorbed into the new urban districts.
A prolonged agricultural depression in Britain at the end of the 19th century, together with the introduction in the 20th century of increasingly heavy levels of taxation on inherited wealth, put an end to agricultural land as the primary source of wealth for the upper classes. Many estates were sold or broken up, and this trend was accelerated by the introduction of protection for agricultural tenancies, encouraging outright sales, from the mid-20th century.
There is a movement in England to create adevolved English Parliament. This would give England a local Parliament like those already functioning for Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales. This issue is referred to as theWest Lothian question.
The reforms arising from theLocal Government Act of 1972 resulted in the most uniform and simplified system of local government which has been used in England. They effectively wiped away everything that had gone before, and built an administrative system from scratch. All previous administrative districts—statutory counties, administrative counties, county boroughs, municipal boroughs, counties corporate, civil parishes—were abolished.
The aim of the act was to establish a uniform two tier system across the country. Onto the blank canvas, new counties were created to cover the entire country; many of these were obviously based on thehistoric counties, but there were some major changes, especially in the north.
This uniform two-tier system lasted only 12 years. In 1986, the metropolitan county councils and Greater London were abolished. This restored autonomy (in effect the old county borough status) to the metropolitan and London boroughs. The Local Government Act (1992) established a commission (Local Government Commission for England) to examine the issues, and make recommendations on where unitary authorities should be established. It was considered too expensive to make the system entirely unitary, and also there would doubtlessly be cases where the two-tier system functioned well. The commission recommended that many counties be moved to completely unitary systems; that some cities become unitary authorities, but that the remainder of their parent counties remain two-tier; and that in some counties thestatus quo should remain.
Therate-capping rebellion was a campaign within English local councils in 1985 which aimed to force the Conservative government ofMargaret Thatcher to withdraw powers to restrict the spending of councils. The campaign's tactic was that councils whose budgets were restricted would refuse to set any budget at all for the financial year 1985–86, requiring the Government to intervene directly in providing local services, or to concede. However, all 15 councils which initially refused to set a rate eventually did so, and the campaign failed to change Government policy. Powers to restrict council budgets have remained in place ever since.
In 1997, theLieutenancies Act was passed. This firmly separated all local authority areas (whether unitary or two-tier), from the geographical concept of a county as high level spatial unit. The lieutenancies it established became known asceremonial counties, since they were no longer administrative divisions. The counties represent a compromise between thehistoric counties and the counties established in 1974.
While the 1997 Labour government devolved power toWales,Scotland andNorthern Ireland, it refused to create a devolved Assembly orparliament for England, planning instead to introduce eight regional assemblies around England to devolve power to the regions. In the event, only aLondon Assembly (and directly electedMayor) was established. Rejection in a referendum of a proposed North-East Assembly in 2004 effectively scrapped those plans. A pre-condition of having a regional assembly was for the whole area to move to unitary authority status. Since the2005 general election the government has floated the idea of voluntary mergers of local councils, avoiding a costly reorganisation but achieving desired reform. For instance, the guiding principles of the government's "New Localism" demand levels of efficiency not present in the current over-duplicated two-tier structure.
In 2009,new changes to local government were made whereby a number of newunitary authorities were created in areas which previously had a 'two-tier' system ofcounties anddistricts. In fiveshire counties the functions of the county and district councils were combined into a single authority; and in two counties the powers of the county council were absorbed into a significantly reduced number of districts.
On 7 September 2010, details were released of 56 proposals forlocal enterprise partnerships that had been received.[120][121] On 6 October 2010, during the Conservative Party Conference, it was revealed that 22 had been given the provisional 'green light' to proceed and others may later be accepted with amendments.[122] Twenty-four bids were announced as successful on 28 October 2010.[123]
^Richmond, Colin (1992). "Englishness and Medieval Anglo-Jewry". In Kushner, Tony (ed.).The Jewish Heritage in British History. Frank Cass. pp. 42–59.ISBN0-7146-3464-6.
^Skinner, Patricia (2003). "Introduction". In Skinner, Patricia (ed.).Jews in Medieval Britain. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. pp. 1–11.ISBN0-85115-931-1.
^Ward-Perkins, Bryan. "Why did the Anglo-Saxons not become more British?." The English Historical Review 115.462 (2000): page 523.
^Higham, Nicholas J. and Ryan, Martin J.The Anglo-Saxon World (Yale University Press, 2013).
^Stefan Burmeister,Archaeology and Migration (2000): " ... immigration in the nucleus of the Anglo-Saxon settlement does not seem aptly described in terms of the "elite-dominance model.To all appearances, the settlement was carried out by small, agriculture-oriented kinship groups. This process corresponds more closely to a classic settler model. The absence of early evidence of a socially demarcated elite underscores the supposition that such an elite did not play a substantial role. Rich burials such as are well known from Denmark have no counterparts in England until the 6th century. At best, the elite-dominance model might apply in the peripheral areas of the settlement territory, where an immigration predominantly comprised of men and the existence of hybrid cultural forms might support it."
^Dark, Ken R. (2003)."Large-scale population movements into and from Britain south of Hadrian's Wall in the fourth to sixth centuries AD"(PDF).: "In fact, part of eastern Britain may have already been losing a significant portion of its rural population, as evidence from East Anglia – amassed and analyzed by local archaeologists – may suggest. In this area at least, and possibly more widely in eastern Britain, large tracts of land appear to have been deserted in the late fourth century, possibly including whole "small towns" and villages. This does not seem to have been a localised change in settlement location, size or character but genuine desertion ... The areas where we have most indications of an intrusive Germanic culture are precisely those where we have most evidence of late fourth-century abandonment."
^Toby F. Martin,The Cruciform Brooch and Anglo-Saxon England, Boydell and Brewer Press (2015), pp. 174–178: "There is by now, however, an admission that no single model is suitable for Anglo-Saxon England in its entirety. Regional variation may well provide the key to resolution, with something more akin to mass migration in the southeast, gradually spreading into elite dominance in the north and west. I accord with this compromise between the debates insofar as large-scale migration seems highly likely for at least East Anglia and parts of Lincolnshire. At the same time, however, it is dubious that these people migrated as a coherent Anglian group."
^Catherine Hills, "The Anglo-Saxon Migration: An Archaeological Case Study of Disruption," inMigrations and Disruptions, ed. Brenda J. Baker and Takeyuki Tsuda, pp. 45–48: "In a fairly precisely defined region in eastern England, centered on Norfolk and Lincolnshire, a significant number of people from the other side of the north sea do seem to have arrived in the fifth century and established territories where Germanic material culture and, especially, burial practices were dominant. This forms the basis for the "Anglian" zone of later Anglo-Saxon England. The population may indeed have included a substantial number of people with Germanic ancestry as well as an as yet unspecifiable proportion of the native British population ... There was not one "Anglo-Saxon migration" that had the same impact in all of England ..."
^Härke, Heinrich. "Anglo-Saxon Immigration and Ethnogenesis."Medieval Archaeology 55.1 (2011): 1–28: "A third model, that of "elite transfer," has been suggested for Bernicia where a small group of immigrants may have replaced the British elite and took over the kingdom as a going concern."
^Kortlandt, Frederik (2018)."Relative Chronology"(PDF).: "The second migration, which attracted incomers from other Germanic tribes, offers a different picture for Northumbria, and more specifically Bernicia, where there was a noticeable Celtic contribution to art, culture and possibly socio-military organisation. It appears that the immigrants took over the institutions of the local population here."
^Albany F. Major,Early wars of Wessex (Hildreth Press, 2008).
^Richard P. Ables,Alfred the great: war, kingship and culture I'm Anglo-Saxon England (1998).
^Lawson, M. K. (1984). "The Collection of Danegeld and Heregeld in the Reigns of Aethelred II and Cnut".The English Historical Review.99 (393):721–738.doi:10.1093/ehr/XCIX.CCCXCIII.721.JSTOR569175.
^Thames Cussans,Kings and Queens of the British Isles (The Times Books, 2002), pp.32–35.
^John Cannon."William I".encyclopedia.com. Retrieved27 March 2024.
^Gillingham, John (1984).The Angevin Empire (1st ed.). London: Edward Arnold.ISBN0-7131-6249-X.
^*France, John (2015)."The Battle of Bouvines 27 July 1214". In Halfond, Gregory I. (ed.).The Medieval Way of War: Studies in Medieval Military History in Honor of Bernard S. Bachrach. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 251–271.ISBN978-1-4724-1958-3.
^Morris, John E. (1901).The Welsh Wars of Edward I. a Contribution to Mediaeval Military History, Based on Original Documents. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.OCLC562375464.
^Huscroft, Richard (2006).Expulsion: England's Jewish solution. Stroud: Tempus. pp. 112–139.ISBN978-0-752-43729-3.
^Edward first styled himself "King of France" in 1337, though he did not officially assume the title until 1340; Prestwich (2005), pp. 307–8.
^"...major victories such as Sluis (1340) and Winchelesea (1350)..."Steven Gunn; Armand Jamme (2015)."Kings, Nobles and Military Networks". In Christopher Fletcher; Jean-Philippe Genet; John Watts (eds.).Government and Political Life in England and France, c.1300–c.1500. Cambridge University Press. p. 48.ISBN978-1-107-08990-7.
^Grant, R. G. (2017).1001 Battles That Changed the Course of History. p. 195.
^Lavery, Brian (2013).The Conquest of the Ocean. p. 61.
Cannon, John.The Oxford Companion to British History (2nd ed. 2002) 1142pp
Elton, G.R.Modern Historians on British History 1485–1945: A Critical Bibliography 1945–1969 (1970)excerpt, highly useful bibliography of 1000+ scholarly books, articles and book reviews published before 1970.
Furber, Elizabeth Chapin, ed.Changing Views on British History (1966)
Loades, David, ed.Reader's Guide to British History (2 vol 2003), 1610pp
Schlatter, Richard, ed.Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing Since 1966 (1984)
English historical documents London: Methuen; 12 vol to 1957; reprinted 2011; the most comprehensive collection on political, constitutional, economic and social topics
Handcock, William D., and George Malcolm Young. eds.English Historical Documents, 1833–1874 (Vol. 9. Psychology Press, 1995, reprint)
Douglas, D. C. ed.English historical documents, 1874–1914 (Methuen 1995)
Beard, Charles, ed.An introduction to the English historians (1906) excerpts
Cheyney, Edward P.Readings in English History Drawn from the Original Sources Intended to Illustrate a Short History of England (1935), 850 pp. (strongest on political & constitutional topics)
Harmer, Florence Elizabeth. ed.Select English historical documents of the ninth and tenth centuries (Cambridge University Press, 2011)
Henderson, Ernest Flagg, ed.Select historical documents of the Middle Ages (1907)online
Leach, Arthur F. ed.Educational Charters and Documents 598 to 1909 (1911) 640pp;online over 400 pp. on Middle Ages
Stephenson, Carl and Frederick G. Marcham, eds.Sources of English Constitutional History (2nd ed. 1990)
Stubbs, William, ed.Select charters and other illustrations of English constitutional history from the earliest times to the reign of Edward the First (Clarendon Press, 1870)online
Weiner, Joel H. ed.Great Britain Foreign Policy & Span of Empire, 1689–1971 (4 Vol, 1983), 3425 pp.
Wiener, Joel H. ed.Great Britain: the lion at home; a documentary history of domestic policy, 1689–1973 (4 vol 1974), 1396 pp.
Letters of the Kings of England, now first collected from the originals in royal archives, and from other authentic sources, private as well as public by J O Halliwell-Phillipps, London, H. Colburn, 1846.vol. 1 —Google Books
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