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The doctrine of theTrinity, considered the core ofChristian theology byTrinitarians, is the result of continuous exploration by the church of thebiblical data, thrashed out in debate and treatises, eventually formulated at theFirst Council of Nicaea in AD 325 in a way they believe is consistent with the biblical witness, and further refined inlater councils and writings.[1] The most widely recognized Biblical foundations for the doctrine's formulation are in theGospel of John,[1] which possess ideas reflected inPlatonism and Greek philosophy.[2]
Nontrinitarianism is any of several Christian beliefs that reject the Trinitariandoctrine that God is three distinct persons in one being. Modern nontrinitarian groups views differ widely on thenature of God,Jesus, and theHoly Spirit.
Historical theology is the academic study of the development of Christian theology.
Christianity originated as a sect within Second Temple Judaism (516 BC – AD 70).[3] Judaism's sacred scripture is theHebrew Bible, known to Christians as theOld Testament. The Hebrew Bible is divided into three parts: theTorah ("Law"), theNevi'im ("Prophets") and theKetuvim ("Writings").[4] The central belief of Judaism ismonotheism: there is oneGod namedYahweh (Deuteronomy 6:4,Isaiah 44:6).[5]
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According to the Bible, God promisedAbraham, theJewish patriarch, that his descendants would become a great nation and a blessing to all the earth (Genesis 12:3).[6] Therefore, theJews were a chosen people (Deuteronomy 7:6–8) bound by acovenant with God.[7] God's election placed certain obligations on the Jewish people, and thesemīṣvōt ('commandments') were found in the Torah. They were to love Yahweh with all their hearts and worship no other gods (Deuteronomy 6:4–5). Likewise, they were commanded to love one another (Leviticus 19:18).[6] In addition, they were to observe theSabbath, followkosher food laws, andcircumcise their sons.[8] By obeying the commandments, Israel would be a holy nation, reflecting God'sholiness to the world and manifesting thekingdom (rule) of God.[6] Possession of theland of Israel was contingent on fidelity to the Torah,[9] and theHouse of David was considered the rightful rulers over the land (2 Samuel 7:11–16).[10]
TheTemple in Jerusalem was the dwelling place and throne of God (1 Kings 8:12–13).[9] It was there that a hereditarypriesthood offeredsacrifices ofincense,food, and various kinds ofanimals to God.[11] Thesin offering (Leviticus 4–5) and the annualDay of Atonement ritual (Leviticus 16) served to both purify the temple andatone for individual and nationalsins. "In both cases the sacrificial blood made possible the continuation or restoration of the relation between God and his people ruptured by sin and/or prevented by human impurity."[12]
TheFirst Temple was destroyed during thesiege of Jerusalem in 587 BC, and the Jewish people were carried away into theBabylonian exile (586–538 BC). With the loss of the land and the temple, studying and following Torah became the central concern of Judaism. Some Jews, particularly thePharisees, came to believe that Torah devotion could replace temple worship, and this was facilitated by the establishment ofsynagogues. For those unable to offer sacrifices at the temple, spiritual sacrifices (almsgiving,prayer,fasting, or Torah study) could be substituted.[13] After the return from exile, theSecond Temple became the center of Jewish national and religious life;[14] nevertheless, the Torah continued to serve as "a portable Land, a movable Temple".[15]
After the conquests ofAlexander the Great (356–323 BC), the Jewish homeland experiencedHellenization (the spread ofGreek culture).[16]Hellenistic Judaism was a movement that sought to combine Judaism with the best elements of Greek culture.[17] The Greek-speakingJews of Alexandria produced a Greek translation of the Bible called theSeptuagint, which was used by the first Christians.[18]
Antiochus IV Epiphanes (r. 175 – 164 BC), king of theSeleucid Empire, adopted anti-Jewish policies in an attempt to Hellenize the Jews. He prohibited Jewish religious practices in 168 BC, introduced the worship ofZeus in the Temple in 167 BC (the "abomination of desolation" ofDaniel 9:27 andDaniel 11:31), and set up pagan altars everywhere.[19] Jews who refused to follow the king's religious policies faced death.Jewish martyrdom contributed to the belief inresurrection of the dead (2 Maccabees 7:9).[20]
TheMaccabean Revolt in 167 BC restored an independent Jewish kingdom under theHasmonean dynasty, which ruled as kings andhigh priests.[21] However, some Jews believed the Hasmoneans lacked legitimacy since they were not descended from the royal line of David nor thepriestly line of Zadok.[22][23] TheRoman Empire conquered the Hasmonean kingdom in 63 BC and appointedclient kings. Under the Romans, the formerly lifelong office of high priest was filled by temporary appointments and "became increasingly the plaything for political and financial interests."[23]
Jewish writings offered different explanations for Israel's domination by foreigners. According to the prophetsIsaiah,Jeremiah,Amos, andHosea, Israel suffered as punishment for its sins. If the people repented, God would restore the kingdom.[24]
An alternative worldview known as apocalypticism developed around the time of the Maccabean Revolt. The term is derived from the Greek wordapocalypsis ('unveiling' or'revealing'), and Jewish apocalypticists believed God had revealed the future to them.[24] Major texts ofapocalyptic literature wereJoel,1 Enoch,Daniel, theIsaiah apocalypse (chapters 24–27),Jubilees,Ascension of Moses,Sibylline Oracles,4 Ezra,2 Enoch,2 Baruch,Apocalypse of Abraham, some of theDead Sea Scrolls, and3 Baruch.[25]
Apocalypticism is adualistic worldview. In the present age, the world is corrupted by the cosmic forces of evil (Satan and hisdemons). But in the future, God and hisangels will destroy the forces of evil. God willredeem the whole world, not just the Jewish people. In the age to come, "there would be no suffering or pain; there would be no more hatred, despair, war, disease, or death. God would be the ruler of all, in a kingdom that would never end."[26] At this time, there will be alast judgment and auniversal resurrection so that all people can be rewarded or punished.[27]
Apocalypticists expected God to accomplish these things by sending a savior figure ormessiah.[27]Messiah (Hebrewmeshiach) means "anointed" and was used in the Old Testament to designateJewish kings and in some cases priests andprophets whose status was symbolized by being anointed withholy anointing oil. The term is most associated with King David, to whom God promised an eternal kingdom (2 Samuel 7:11–17). After the fall of David's dynasty, this promise was reaffirmed by the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, andEzekiel, who foresaw a future Davidic king who would establish and reign over an idealized kingdom.[28]
In the Second Temple period, there was no consensus on who the messiah would be or what he would do.[29] Some believed the messiah would be a political figure, a son of David, who would restore an independentKingdom of Israel.[30] A detailed description of such a Davidic messiah is found in the 17th psalm of thePsalms of Solomon. Others believed in a priestly messiah.Psalm 110 refers to a figure belonging to thepriesthood of Melchizedek, the priest-king ofGenesis 14:17–24. TheTestament of Levi refers to God raising up a "new priest".[31] Others anticipated the coming of a celestial figure called theSon of Man who would lead armies of angels and inaugurate the reign of God on earth (Daniel 7:13–14).[32][20]
After the Maccabean Revolt, several Jewish sects emerged that differed on their interpretations of the Torah, their reaction to foreign domination, and their acceptance of a non-Zadokite high priest. The New Testament explicitly mentions three Jewish sects, and the Jewish historianJosephus mentions four.[33]
ThePharisees rejected Greek religion and culture. They were committed to obeying the Torah and developed rules to clarify its ambiguities. For example, theTen Commandments required Jews to keep the Sabbath holy, but the Torah does not explain how this is to be done. The rules developed by the Pharisees became known as theoral Torah.[34] Like priests serving in the Temple, Pharisees attempted to maintain a state of Temple holiness throughout their daily lives by adhering toJewish purity laws. This required them to separate from ordinary people and could explain the origin of the termPharisee, which means "separated ones". As alay movement, the Pharisees had no official religious role within Judaism, but they were respected by ordinary Jews. Pharisaic ideas, such as belief in angels, demons, and resurrection became widely accepted.[35]
TheSadducees were drawn from the families of the chief priests and the Jewish aristocracy.[36] Their religion centered on the Temple and its sacrifices, and they cooperated with the Romans so that those sacrifices could continue. They were less concerned with purity regulations in daily life. The Sadducees only accepted the written Torah as authoritative, and they denied the existence of angels or a future resurrection.[37]
TheEssenes formed in protest of the Hasmonean usurpation of the high priesthood and refused to worship at the Jerusalem Temple.[38] Separating from other Jews, they were an ascetic movement focused on strict adherence to the Torah and purity regulations. Like the Pharisees, Essenes believed in the existence of angels and in a future resurrection.[39] The Essenes were an apocalyptic sect that believed God would give Israel two messiahs—a Davidic king and an anointed priest—to lead the Sons of Light in a war against the Sons of Darkness(seeWar Scroll). The Sons of Light will be victorious, and a new Temple will be built to replace the corrupt one.[40]
Josephus writes about an unnamed "fourth philosophy" that could include several different groups, particularly theZealots and theSicarii. These groups endorsed armed resistance against foreign rulers and their Jewish collaborators.[41]
Church historianDiarmaid MacCulloch has observed that "Christianity in its first five centuries was in many respects a dialogue between Judaism and Graeco-Roman philosophy".[42] There are similarities between early Christianity and ancient philosophy. Biblical scholarUdo Schnelle writes, "philosophy is a salutary means for living well and dying well ... The followers of Jesus of Nazareth practiced a comparable lifestyle, treated comparable subjects, and produced comparable literature."[43]
The related philosophies ofCynicism andStoicism emphasizedethics and individual freedom. Cynics "commended and practiced a lifestyle oriented to nature and to reason, which eradicates false passions from the soul (lust, craving, anger) and leads to a simple life without needs."[44] Some Cynics adopted a wandering,ascetic way of life that may have influencedChristian asceticism.[45]
Stoicism taughtmonistic pantheism, according to which a benevolent, impersonal reason (Greek:logos) permeates the universe and is the source of human reason.[46][47] "Because all humans are part of a grand design that is rational, Stoics thought that reason had put everyone ... in a place for a purpose",[47] and Stoics strove to live in accordance with reason. One need only obey what Stoics called thenatural law to be virtuous.[48] To attain virtue (practical wisdom, moderation, self-control, and justice), a person must become free of thepassions (fear, grief, lust, hate, etc.).[49] Stoicism's ethical teachings and its doctrines of thelogos and natural law had important influences on earlyChristian ethics and thought.[48] TheApostle Paul uses Stoic terminology in1 Corinthians when describing the Christian community as a body in which each part is necessary(seeBody of Christ). As described in theActs of the Apostles, Paul used Stoic ideas in hisAreopagus sermon atAthens.[45]
The most important philosophical influence wasMiddle Platonism (68 BC – 250 AD) andNeo-Platonism (250–500):[50]
Christianity centers on thelife andteachings ofJesus of Nazareth, who livedc. 4 BC – c. AD 33. In the early years of Christianity,oral gospel traditions would have been important in transmitting memories and stories of Jesus.[note 1] Biblical scholarPeter Stuhlmacher writes, "The men and women surrounding Jesus learned his sayings by heart in accordance with the early Jewish pattern, preserved them in their memory, and passed them on to others."[57] Biblical scholarBart D. Ehrman writes, "Stories about Jesus were thus being told throughout the Mediterranean for decades to convert people and to educate those who had converted, to win people to faith and to instruct those who had been brought in; stories were told in evangelism, in education, in exhortation, and probably in services of worship."[58] According to biblical scholar Anthony Le Donne, early Christian communities preserved memories of Jesus by relating them to familiar stories ortypes, such as theson of David.[59]
The oldest surviving written sources about Jesus are 1st-century texts that were later included in theNew Testament.[60] The earliest are the seven authenticPauline epistles,[note 2] letters written to various Christian congregations byPaul the Apostle in the 50s AD.[61] The fourcanonical gospels areancient biographies of Jesus' life. The oldest is theGospel of Mark, writtenc. 65 – c. 75. The gospels ofMatthew andLuke were writtenc. 80 – c. 95. TheGospel of John was written last, around 100.[62]
The oral and written transmission that led to the gospels involved eyewitnesses, who would have contributed to the development of the gospel tradition and been consulted as what would become the Gospels took shape.[63][note 3] The gospels were likely composed within the lifetimes of various eyewitnesses, including Jesus's own family.[64] However, biblical scholarHelen Bond writes that the canonical gospels "clearly reflect the post-Easter reflections of the early church. They were not written by eye-witnesses".[65]
Biblical scholarDale Allison notes, "ourSynoptic [Gospel] writers thought that they were reconfiguring memories of Jesus, not inventing theological tales."[66] However, this does not guarantee the gospels' historical accuracy.[66] As Bond points out, the gospels are not "primarily historical accounts of the life of Jesus" but "are declarations of the true identity of Jesus as Christ and Son of God, written with the intention of encouraging or strengthening the faith of their earliest readers."[65]
The four canonical gospels focus on three themes:[67]
Asthe Christ or "Anointed One" (Greek:Christos), Jesus is identified as the fulfillment ofmessianic prophecies in the Old Testament. Through the accounts of his miraculousvirgin birth, the gospels present Jesus as theSon of God. Throughout the New Testament, Jesus is calledkyrios ("lord" in Greek), a word used in the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible for the name of God.[68]
While thesynoptic gospels agree with each other on the broad outlines of Jesus' life, each gospel has its own emphasis. The Gospel of Mark presents Jesus as "the suffering Messiah, theSon of man who is crucified and later vindicated by God".[65] In Matthew, Jesus is Messiah, Son of David, and a newMoses. In Luke, he is a prophet and martyr.[65] In John, Jesus is described as God himself.[69] In an appropriation of Greek philosophical concepts, John's Gospel identifies Jesus as thedivine logos by which the world was created: "And the Word became flesh and lived among us, and we have seen his glory" (John 1:14).[70]
Jesus' message centered on the coming of theKingdom of God (inJewish eschatology a future when God actively rules over the world in justice, mercy, and peace).[71] Jesus urged his followers torepent in preparation for the kingdom's coming. InMark 1:15, Jesus proclaims, "The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand; repent and believe inthe gospel." His ethical teachings included loving one's enemies, not serving both God andMammon, and not judging others. These ethical teachings are encapsulated in theSermon on the Mount and theLord's Prayer.[72]
To Jewish audiences, early preaching focused on Jesus as the fulfillment of Israel's messianic hopes (see for example theApostle Peter's sermon inActs 2). When preaching to Greek audiences, however, Christians appealed to the Greek intellectual tradition. This approach can be seen in theAreopagus sermon delivered by the Apostle Paul as described inActs 17. CitingAthenian worship of theUnknown God, Paul proclaims that this god is revealed to humanity through Jesus. Quoting the Athenian poetAratus, Paul states that in God "we live and move and have our being" (Acts 17:28).[70]
After hiscleansing of the Temple, Jesus was arrested,tried, andcrucified. According to John, Jesus dies on the day of preparation forPassover, when thePassover sacrifice was slaughtered in the temple. John understands Jesus to be theLamb of God andSuffering Servant who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29, also1 Corinthians 5:7).[73]
The followers of Jesus believed he appeared to them after his death. The oldest written account ofEaster is provided by Paul in1 Corinthians 15:3–5. Given his conversion occurredc. 32 – c. 33 CE, the tradition he cites must be older than 40 CE.[74] The passage states:
For I handed on to you as of first importance what I in turn had received: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures, and that he was buried, and that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the scriptures, and that he appeared toCephas, then tothe twelve.
Theresurrection of Jesus became the foundation of Christianity. Paul writes, "If Christ has not been raised, then our proclamation is vain, and your faith is also vain" (1 Corinthians 15:14).[75] The gospel accounts conclude with a description of theAscension of Jesus.[76] The New Testament epistles explain that Jesus makessalvation possible, and the resurrection confirms the truth of his identity. Throughfaith, believers experienceunion with Jesus and both share inhis suffering and thehope of his resurrection.[77]
The first Christians wereJewish Christians, and the center of Christianity was thechurch in Jerusalem. Acts records that during the 40s and 50s AD there wascontroversy over circumcision and the place ofGentiles (non-Jews) in the movement. TheJudaizers believed that Gentile Christians needed to follow Jewish laws and customs, particularlycircumcision, to be saved. Paul, however, argued that no one could be made righteous orjustified by following the law of Moses but only through faith in Jesus, citing the prophetHabakkuk: "he who through faith is righteous shall live" (Habbakuk 2:4). At theCouncil of Jerusalem held in 49 AD, it was decided that Gentile believers would not have to undergo circumcision.[78][79]
The issue remained alive for many years after the Jerusalem council. New Testament sources suggest thatJames the Just, brother of Jesus and leader of the Jerusalem church still believed the Torah was binding on Jewish Christians. InGalatians 2:11-14, Paul described "people from James" causing theApostle Peter and other Jewish Christians in Antioch to break table fellowship with Gentiles(seeIncident at Antioch). Joel Marcus, professor of Christian origins, suggests that Peter's own position was somewhere between James and Paul, but that he probably leaned more toward James.[80]
TheEpistle of James stresses the importance of the Torah as "the perfect law of liberty" and "the implanted word that is able to save your souls".[81] Marcus comments that in the epistle "little room is left for the saving function of Jesus, who is mentioned only twice, and in an incidental way (1.1, 2:1)."[82]
The influence of the Jerusalem church and its form of Jewish Christianity declined after theJewish revolt of 66–70 AD and never recovered.Pauline theology became the mainstream form of Christianity, and "all Christians alive today are the heirs of the Church which Paul created."[83]
References to theHoly Spirit are found in the New Testament, but it is not fully clear how the Spirit relates to Jesus. The term would have been familiar to Jewish Christians(seeHoly Spirit in Judaism). In the Gospel of John, the Spirit descends on Jesus duringhis baptism byJohn the Baptist. Paul speaks of the Spirit often in his letters. The Spirit unites all Christians: "For by one Spirit we were all baptized into one body—Jews or Greeks, slaves or free—and all were made to drink of one Spirit" (1 Corinthians 12:13).[84]
Paul wrote that the Spirit empowers the church with various gifts orcharismata. In1 Corinthians 14, Paul wrote about the practice of ecstaticallyspeaking in tongues (or unknown languages).Acts 2:1-13 described how the Spirit descended on theTwelve Apostles on the feast ofPentecost and made them speak in foreign languages.[85]
The period between the last New Testament writings (c. 100) and theCouncil of Chalcedon (451) is called the patristic era, named for theChurch Fathers (Latin:pater,'father'). TheAnglican,Catholic,Eastern Orthodox,Lutheran, andReformed churches consider themselves to be continuations of the patristic tradition.[86]
A large quantity of theological reflection emerged in the early centuries of the Christian church—in a wide variety of genres, in a variety of contexts, and in several languages—much of it the product of attempts to discuss how Christian faith should be lived in cultures very different from the one in which it was born. For instance, a good deal ofGreek language literature can be read as an attempt to come to terms with Hellenistic culture. The period sees the slow emergence oforthodoxy (the idea of which seems to emerge from the conflicts betweenCatholic Christianity andGnostic Christianity), the establishment of aBiblical canon, debates about the doctrine of the Trinity (most notably between the councils ofNicaea in 325 andConstantinople in 381), aboutChristology (most notably between the councils of Constantinople in 381 andChalcedon in 451), about the purity of the Church (for instance in the debates surrounding theDonatists), and aboutgrace,free will andpredestination (for instance in the debate betweenAugustine of Hippo andPelagius).
Influential texts and writers in the 2nd century include:
Influential texts and writers between c. 200 and 325 (the First Council of Nicaea) include:
The earliestPatristic writings is a collection known as the Apostolic Fathers. The name was applied to this collection in the 16th century because it was believed that the authors had been trained by the apostles.[87] There is some chronological overlap between the latest writings of the New Testament and the earliest of the Apostolic Fathers. For example, theDidache was probably written well within the New Testament period.[88]
The collection spans various genres, but the writings share two themes in common:paraenesis (moral teaching) and discussion of Christianity's relationship to Judaism.[89] The collection also reveals the development of distinct theological schools or orientations: Asia Minor and Syria, Rome, and Alexandria. The school of Asia Minor (theJohannine literature,Ignatius,Polycarp, andPapias) stressed union with Christ for attainingeternal life. Roman Christianity (Clement andThe Shepherd of Hermas) was influenced by Stoicism and stressed ethics and morality. TheAlexandrian school (Epistle of Barnabas) was influenced byMiddle Platonism andNeoplatonism. It combined a focus on ethics with an allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament in the tradition ofPhilo.[90]
1 Clement is a letter written around AD 96 byClement I, thebishop of Rome, to the church inCorinth. While Clement mainly addresses those Corinthians who had become rebellious and divisive, the letter also provides clues to his theology.[91] Severaltrinitarian formulas are present, such as, "Have we not one God and one Christ and one Spirit of grace, the Spirit that has been poured out on us?"[92] Clement'sChristology is characterized by a belief in thepre-existence of Christ. Clement provides the earliest articulation ofapostolic succession: the apostles chose holy men to succeed them and these in turn chose their own successors who cannot be deposed by the congregation. He calls these church leadersbishops anddeacons; however, he sometimes uses the titlepresbyter interchangeably withbishop, indicating that these two offices had not yet become separated.[93]
TheDidache orDoctrine of the Twelve Apostles is achurch order or manual probably composed in the late 1st century or early 2nd century in Palestine or Syria.[94] This document provides insight into earlyChristian liturgy, which is clearly influenced by ancient Jewish practice. It regardsimmersion baptism as normal but allows foraffusion (pouring water over the head), which is the earliest description of an alternative method of baptism. Theeucharist is described, but it is not yet separate from theagape feast.[95] In theDidache,prophets are the preeminent leaders of the church with bishops and deacons in subordinate roles. It is possible this arrangement represents "a period of transition between the primitive system ofcharismatic authority and the hierarchical organization that was slowly developing within the church".[96]
Ignatius, thebishop of Antioch, wrote seven surviving letters while traveling as a prisoner to facemartyrdom in Rome.[96] Ignatius wrote to defend belief in theincarnation of God in Jesus Christ fromJudaizers, who believed Jesus was only a human teacher, andDocetists, who denied the humanity of Jesus.[97] In hisEpistle to the Ephesians, Ignatius affirmed both the divinity and humanity of Christ: "There is one Physician: both flesh and spirit,begotten and unbegotten, in man, God, in death, true life, both fromMary and from God, first passible and thenimpassible, Jesus Christ our Lord".[98] Ignatius was the first writer to describe the church ascatholic, by which he meant it was whole or complete in contrast to the heretical sects. It is within the church that a person isunited with Christ through thesacraments, especially the eucharist. However, there is no church apart from the bishops, presbyters, and deacons who are the successors to the apostles. Ignatius provided the earliest description of amonarchical bishop, instructing his readers that nothing be done in the church without the bishop's consent, including baptism, the eucharist, and marriage.[99] Ignatius identified the eucharist closely with the death and resurrection of Christ—"it is the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which flesh suffered for our sins and which the Father raised up".[100] For Ignatius, the eucharist unites the believer to thepassion of Christ. He wrote that it was "the medicine of immortality, the antidote which results not in dying but in living forever in Jesus Christ".[101]
The author of theEpistle of Barnabas used an allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament to harmonize it with Christian teachings. The stories of the Old Testament were understood to betypes that point to the saving work of Jesus.[102] The Apostolic Fathers, all of whom were Gentiles, struggled with the authority of theOld Covenant and the relationship between Judaism and Christianity. TheEpistle of Barnabas 14.3-4 claimed thetablets of the covenant were destroyed atSinai and that Israel had nocovenant with God.[103]
The Shepherd of Hermas taught that a person could be forgiven once for postbaptismal sin (sins committed after baptism).[104] Hermas also introduced the idea ofworks of supererogation (to do more than the commandments of God require). This concept would contribute to the later development of thetreasury of merit and theWestern Church's penitential system.[105] InThe Shephard of Hermas, the Holy Spirit is conflated with the Son of God: "the holy pre-existent Spirit which created the whole creation God made to dwell in flesh that he desired. This flesh therefore in which the Holy Spirit dwelt was subject to the Spirit ... He chose this flesh as a partner with the Holy Spirit".[106]
The Apostolic Fathers placed great importance on baptism. According to theologianGeoffrey Hugo Lampe, the Fathers considered baptism to be "the seal with which believers are marked out as God's people, the way of death to sin and demons and of rebirth to resurrection-life, the new white robe which must be preserved undefiled, the shield of Christ's soldier, the sacrament of the reception of the Holy Spirit."[107] The Apostolic Fathers also clearly considered the eucharist to be the center of Christian worship.[108]
During the same time period as the Apostolic Fathers, Christians were also producing works claiming to be ancient Jewish texts. These are consideredOld Testament pseudepigrapha, and the most important are:[109]
The early 2nd century also saw the production of works claiming apostolic origin and are now categorized asNew Testament apocryphal literature:[109]
In the middle of the 2nd century,Christian apologists wrote to defend the faith against criticism andpersecution by Roman authorities. In general, the apologists responded to two types of accusations, popular rumors about Christian practices (such as that they ate children or that thelovefeast was actually an orgy) and sophisticated attacks on Christian beliefs (such as that Christians borrowed and corrupted ideas from Greek philosophy). The Greek apologists are:.[110]
Justin Martyr is the most important of the 2nd-century apologists.[111] Justin's explanation of Christian beliefs was influenced by Middle Platonism. For him,God the Father was transcendent, and hebegot the logos (Word) who reveals the Father to creation. Christ is the logos and source of all truth. The Greek philosophers of the past only knew the Word partially. But the full truth was revealed to Christians in the person of Jesus Christ.[112] In Justin'sDialogue with Trypho, the Jewish Trypho accused Christians of holding the Mosaic covenant in "rash contempt". Justin distinguishes between different parts of the Old Covenant, saying that Christians kept what was "naturally good, pious, and righteous".[113] Justin also uses typological interpretation to connect events in the Old Testament to Christ. For example, thePassover sacrifice was a type of Christ whoseblood saves those who believe in him.[114]
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When New Testament authors used the wordscripture, they referred to writings in the Old Testament. In a relatively short time, Christian writers began referring to New Testament writings as scripture.[115] Several criteria were used to determine which books belonged in the scripturalcanon:[116]
By the late 2nd century, there was general agreement on the canonicity of the four gospels, Acts, and the Pauline letters.[115]Origen (c. 185 – c. 254) used the same 27 books as in the modern New Testament but noted there were disputes over the canonicity ofHebrews,James,2 Peter,2 John,3 John, andRevelation(seeAntilegomena).[117]
In 367,Athanasius, thebishop of Alexandria, included in hisEaster letter a list of canonical books identical to the modern New Testament. This list was accepted by theGreek church and theCouncil of Rome underPope Damasus I in 382. Athanasius' list was also approved by theSynod of Hippo in 393 and theSynod of Carthage in 397 in North Africa. By the 5th century, there was common agreement on the New Testament canon in most of the churches.[118]
Each phrase in the Nicene Creed, which was hammered out at theCouncil of Nicaea, addresses some aspect that had been under passionate discussion and closes the books on the argument, with the weight of the agreement of the over 300 bishops in attendance. Constantine had invited all 1800 bishops of the Christian church (about 1000 in the east and 800 in the west). The number of participating bishops cannot be accurately stated; Socrates Scholasticus and Epiphanius of Salamis counted 318; Eusebius of Caesarea, only 250. In spite of the agreement reached at the council of 325, the Arians who had been defeated dominated most of the church for the greater part of the 4th century, often with the aid of Roman emperors who favored them.
Late antiquity Christianity produced manyChurch Fathers who wrote theological texts, including SS;Augustine,Gregory Nazianzus,Cyril of Jerusalem,Ambrose of Milan,Jerome, and others. What resulted was a golden age of literary and scholarly activity unmatched since the days of Virgil and Horace. Some of these fathers, such asJohn Chrysostom andAthanasius, suffered exile, persecution, or martyrdom from Byzantine Emperors. Many of their writings are translated into English in the compilations ofNicene and Post-Nicene Fathers.
Influential texts and writers between AD 325 and c. 500 include:
Texts from patristic authors after AD 325 are collected in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Important theological debates also surrounded the variousEcumenical Councils—Nicaea in 325, Constantinople in 381,Ephesus in 431 and Chalcedon in 451.
The theology of theBishop of Rome, having amonarchal papacy, developed over time. As a bishopric, its origin is consistent with the development of an episcopal structure in the 1st century.[citation needed] The origins of the papal primacy concept are historically obscure; theologically, it is based on three ancient Christian traditions: (1) that theapostle Peter was preeminent among the apostles, (2) thatPeter ordained his successors as Bishop of Rome, and (3) that thebishops are the successors of the apostles. As long as thePapal See also happened to be the capital of the Western Empire, prestige of theBishop of Rome could be taken for granted without the need of sophisticated theological argumentation beyond these points; after its shift to Milan and then Ravenna, however, more detailed arguments were developed based onMatthew 16:18–19 etc.[119] Nonetheless, in antiquity the Petrine and Apostolic quality, as well as a "primacy of respect", concerning the Roman See went unchallenged by emperors, eastern patriarchs, and the Eastern Church alike.[120] The Ecumenical Council of Constantinople in 381 affirmed Rome as "first among equals".[121] By the close of antiquity, the doctrinal clarification and theological arguments on the primacy of Rome were developed. Just what exactly was entailed in this primacy, and its being exercised, would become a matter of controversy in later times.
Urgent concerns with the uniformity of belief and practice have characterized Christianity from the outset. TheNew Testament itself speaks of the importance of maintaining orthodox doctrine and refuting heresies, showing the antiquity of the concern.[122] The development of doctrine, the position of orthodoxy, and the relationship between the early Church and early heretical groups is a matter of academic debate. Some scholars, drawing upon distinctions betweenJewish Christians, Gentile Christians, and other groups such asGnostics, see Early Christianity as fragmented and with contemporaneous competing orthodoxies.
The process of establishing orthodox Christianity was set in motion by a succession of different interpretations of the teachings of Christ being taught after thecrucifixion. Though Christ himself is noted to have spoken out againstfalse prophets and false christs within the gospels themselves Mark 13:22 (some will arise and distort the truth in order to draw away disciples), Matthew 7:5–20, Matthew 24:4, Matthew 24:11, Matthew 24:24 (For false christs and false prophets will arise). On many occasions in Paul's epistles, he defends his own apostleship, and urges Christians in various places to beware of false teachers, or of anything contrary to what was handed to them by him. The epistles of John and Jude also warn of false teachers andprophets, as does the writer of theBook of Revelation and 1 Jn. 4:1, as did the Apostle Peter warn in 2 Pt. 2:1–3.
One of the roles of bishops, and the purpose of many Christian writings, was to refuteheresies. The earliest of these were generallyChristological in nature, that is, they denied either Christ's (eternal) divinity or humanity. For example,Docetism held that Jesus' humanity was merely an illusion, thus denying the incarnation; whereasArianism held that Jesus was not eternally divine.[123][124] Many groups were dualistic, maintaining that reality was composed of two radically opposing parts: matter, usually seen as evil, and spirit, seen as good. Orthodox Christianity, on the other hand, held that both the material and spiritual worlds were created by God and were therefore both good, and that this was represented in the unified divine and human natures of Christ.[125]
Irenaeus (c. 130–202) was the first to argue that his "proto-orthodox" position was the same faith that Jesus gave to theapostles, and that the identity of the apostles, their successors, and the teachings of the same were all well-known public knowledge. This was therefore an early argument supported byapostolic succession. Irenaeus first established the doctrine of four gospels and no more, with the synoptic gospels interpreted in the light ofJohn. Irenaeus' opponents, however, claimed to have received secret teachings from Jesus via other apostles which were not publicly known.Gnosticism is predicated on the existence of such hidden knowledge, but brief references to private teachings of Jesus have also survived in the canonic Scripture as did warning by the Christ that there would be false prophets or false teachers. Irenaeus' opponents also claimed that the wellsprings of divine inspiration were not dried up, which is the doctrine ofcontinuing revelation.
In the middle of the 2nd century, three groups of Christians adhered to a range of doctrines that divided the Christian communities of Rome: the teacherMarcion, thepentecostal outpourings of ecstatic Christian prophets of a continuing revelation, in a movement that was called "Montanism" because it had been initiated byMontanus and his female disciples, and thegnostic teachings ofValentinus. Early attacks upon alleged heresies formed the matter ofTertullian'sPrescription Against Heretics (in 44 chapters, written from Rome), and of Irenaeus'Against Heresies (c. 180, in five volumes), written in Lyons after his return from a visit to Rome. The letters ofIgnatius of Antioch andPolycarp of Smyrna to various churches warned against false teachers, and theEpistle of Barnabas, accepted by many Christians as part of Scripture in the 2nd century, warned aboutmixing Judaism with Christianity, as did other writers, leading to decisions reached in thefirst ecumenical council, which was convoked by theEmperor Constantine at Nicaea in 325, in response to further disruptive polemical controversy within the Christian community, in that caseArian disputes over the nature of the Trinity.
During those first three centuries, Christianity was effectively outlawed by requirements to venerate the Roman emperor and Roman gods. Consequently, when the Church labelled its enemies as heretics and cast them out of its congregations or severed ties with dissident churches, it remained without the power to persecute them. However, those called "heretics" were also called a number of other things (e.g. "fools", "wild dogs", "servants of Satan"), so the word "heretic" had negative associations from the beginning, and intentionally so.
Before 325 AD, the "heretical" nature of some beliefs was a matter of much debate within the churches. After 325 AD, some opinion was formulated as dogma through thecanons promulgated by the councils.
While the Western Roman Empire declined and fell, the Eastern Roman Empire, centred on Constantinople, remained standing until 1453, and was the home of a wide range of theological activity that was seen as standing in strong continuity with the theology of the Patristic period; indeed the division between Patristic and Byzantine theology would not be recognised by many Orthodox theologians and historians.
When theWestern Roman Empire fragmented under the impact of various 'barbarian' invasions, the Empire-wide intellectual culture that had underpinned late Patristic theology had its interconnections cut. Theology tended to become more localised, more diverse, and more fragmented. The classical Christianity preserved in Italy by men likeBoethius andCassiodorus was different from the vigorousFrankish Christianity documented byGregory of Tours which was different again from the Christianity that flourished in Ireland andNorthumbria in the 7th and 8th centuries. Throughout this period, theology tended to be a moremonastic affair, flourishing in monastic havens where the conditions and resources for theological learning could be maintained.
Important writers include:
Both because it made communication between different Christian centres easier, and because there was a concerted effort by its rulers to encourage educational and religious reforms and to develop greater uniformity in Christian thought and practice across their territories, the establishment of theCarolingian Empire saw an explosion of theological inquiry, and theological controversy. Controversy flared, for instance, around 'SpanishAdoptionism, around the views on predestination ofGottschalk, or around the eucharistic views ofRatramnus.
Important writers include:
With the division and decline of the Carolingian Empire, notable theological activity was preserved in some of the cathedral schools that had begun to rise to prominence under it—for instance atAuxerre in the 9th century orChartres in the 11th century. Intellectual influences from the Arabic world (including works of classical authors preserved by Islamic scholars) moved into the Christian West via Spain, influencing such theologians asGerbert of Aurillac, who went on to become Pope Sylvester II and mentor toOtto III. (Otto was the fourth ruler of the GermanicOttonianHoly Roman Empire, successor to the Carolingian Empire). A controversy about the meaning of the eucharist formed aroundBerengar of Tours in the 11th century which hinted of a new confidence in the intellectual investigation of the faith that foreshadowed the explosion of theological argument that was to take place in the 12th century.
Notable authors include:
Anselm of Canterbury is sometimes misleadingly called the 'Father of Scholasticism' because of the prominent place that reason has in his theology; instead of establishing his points by appeal to authority, he presents arguments to demonstrate why it is that the things he believes on authority must be so. His approach, however, was not very influential in his time, and he kept his distance from the cathedral schools. Larger influences include: the production of thegloss on Scripture associated withAnselm of Laon, the rise to prominence ofdialectic (middle subject of the medievaltrivium) in the work of Abelard, and the production byPeter Lombard of a collection ofSentences or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities. Scholasticism proper can be thought of as the kind of theology that emerges when, in the cathedral schools and their successors, the tools of dialectic are pressed into use to comment upon, explain, and develop the gloss and the sentences.
Notable authors include:
The 13th century saw the attempted suppression of various groups perceived as heterodox, such as theCathars andWaldensians and the associated rise of themendicant orders (notably theFranciscans andDominicans), in part intended as a form of orthodox alternative to the heretical groups. Those two orders quickly became contexts for some of the most intense scholastic theology, producing such 'high scholastic' theologians asAlexander of Hales (Franciscan) andThomas Aquinas (Dominican), or the rather less obviously scholasticBonaventure (Franciscan). The century also saw a flourishing ofmystical theology, with women such asMechthild of Magdeburg playing a prominent role. In addition, the century can be seen as a period in which the study of natural philosophy that could anachronistically be called 'science' began once again to flourish in theological soil, in the hands of such men asRobert Grosseteste andRoger Bacon.
Notable authors include:
Scholastic theology continued to develop as the 13th century gave way to the fourteenth, becoming ever more complex and subtle in its distinctions and arguments. The 14th century saw in particular the rise to dominance of thenominalist orvoluntarist theologies of men likeWilliam of Ockham. The 14th century was also a time in which movements of widely varying character worked for the reform of the institutional church, such asconciliarism,Lollardy and theHussites. Spiritual movements such as theDevotio Moderna also flourished.
Notable authors include:
TheRenaissance yielded scholars the ability to read the scriptures in their original languages and this in part stimulated theReformation.Martin Luther, aDoctor in Bible at the University of Wittenburg,[126] began to teach thatsalvation is a gift of God'sgrace, attainable only throughfaith in Jesus, whoin humility paid for sin.[127] "This one and firm rock, which we call the doctrine ofjustification", insisted Martin Luther, "is the chief article of the whole Christian doctrine, which comprehends the understanding of all godliness."[128] Along with the doctrine of justification, the Reformation promoted a higher view of the Bible. As Martin Luther said, "The true rule is this: God's Word shall establish articles of faith, and no one else, not even an angel can do so."[129] These two ideas in turn promoted the concept of thepriesthood of all believers. Other important reformers wereJohn Calvin,Huldrych Zwingli,Philipp Melanchthon,Martin Bucer and theAnabaptists. Their theology was modified by successors such asTheodore Beza, the EnglishPuritans andFrancis Turretin.
Lutheranism is a major branch ofWestern Christianity that identifies with the teachings of Luther. Luther's efforts to reform the theology and practice of the church launchedThe Reformation. As a result of the reactions of his contemporaries, Christianity was divided.[130] Luther's insights were a major foundation of theProtestant movement.
In 1516–1517,Johann Tetzel, aDominican friar and papal commissioner forindulgences, was sent to Germany by the Roman Catholic Church to sell indulgences to raise money to rebuildSt Peter's Basilica in Rome.[131] Roman Catholic theology stated that faith alone, whether fiduciary or dogmatic, cannot justify man;[132] and that only such faith as is active in charity and good works (fides caritate formata) can justify man.[133] One such good work is donating money to the church.
On 31 October 1517, Luther wrote toAlbrecht, Archbishop of Mainz and Magdeburg, protesting the sale of indulgences. He enclosed in his letter a copy of his "Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences", which came to be known asThe 95 Theses. Hans Hillerbrand writes that Luther had no intention of confronting the church, but saw his disputation as a scholarly objection to church practices, and the tone of the writing is accordingly "searching, rather than doctrinaire".[134] Hillerbrand writes that there is nevertheless an undercurrent of challenge in several of the theses, particularly in Thesis 86, which asks: "Why does the pope, whose wealth today is greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus, build the basilica of St. Peter with the money of poor believers rather than with his own money?"[134]
Luther objected to a saying attributed toJohann Tetzel that "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs",[135] insisting that, since forgiveness was God's alone to grant, those who claimed that indulgences absolved buyers from all punishments and granted them salvation were in error. Christians, he said, must not slacken in following Christ on account of such false assurances.
According toPhilipp Melanchthon, writing in 1546, Luther nailed a copy of the95 Theses to the door of theCastle Church inWittenberg that same day—church doors acting as the bulletin boards of his time—an event now seen as sparking theProtestant Reformation,[136] and celebrated each year on 31 October asReformation Day. Some scholars have questioned the accuracy of Melanchthon's account, noting that no contemporaneous evidence exists for it.[137] Others have countered that no such evidence is necessary, because this was the customary way of advertising an event on a university campus in Luther's day.[138]
The95 Theses were quickly translated from Latin into German, printed, and widely copied, making the controversy one of the first in history to be aided by theprinting press.[139] Within two weeks, the theses had spread throughout Germany; within two months throughout Europe.
From 1510 to 1520, Luther lectured on the Psalms, the books of Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians. As he studied these portions of the Bible, he came to view the use of terms such aspenance andrighteousness by the Roman Catholic Church in new ways. He became convinced that the church was corrupt in its ways and had lost sight of what he saw as several of the central truths of Christianity, the most important of which, for Luther, was the doctrine of justification—God's act of declaring a sinner righteous—by faith alone through God's grace. He began to teach that salvation or redemption is a gift of God'sgrace, attainable only through faith in Jesus as themessiah.[127]
This one and firm rock, which we call the doctrine of justification", he wrote, "is the chief article of the whole Christian doctrine, which comprehends the understanding of all godliness.[140]
— Herbert J. A. Bouman, Concordia Theological Monthly "The Doctrine of Justification in the Lutheran Confessions (Nov. 26, 1955), No. 11:801
Luther came to understand justification as entirely the work of God. Against the teaching of his day that the righteous acts of believers are performed incooperation with God, Luther wrote that Christians receive such righteousness entirely from outside themselves; that righteousness not only comes from Christ but actuallyis the righteousness of Christ, imputed to Christians (rather than infused into them) through faith.[141] "That is why faith alone makes someone just and fulfills the law", he wrote. "Faith is that which brings the Holy Spirit through the merits of Christ."[142] Faith, for Luther, was a gift from God. He explained his concept of "justification" in the Smalcald Articles:
The first and chief article is this: Jesus Christ, our God and Lord, died for our sins and was raised again for our justification (Romans 3:24-25). He alone is the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29), and God has laid on Him the iniquity of us all (Isaiah 53:6). All have sinned and are justified freely, without their own works and merits, by His grace, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, in His blood (Romans 3:23-25). This is necessary to believe. This cannot be otherwise acquired or grasped by any work, law or merit. Therefore, it is clear and certain that this faith alone justifies us ... Nothing of this article can be yielded or surrendered, even though heaven and earth and everything else falls (Mark 13:31).[143]
— Martin Luther, Concordia: The Lutheran Confessions "The Smalcald Articles", Part two, Article 1
In contrast to the speed with which the theses were distributed, the response of the papacy was slow.
Cardinal Albrecht of Hohenzollern, Archbishop of Mainz and Magdeburg, with the consent ofPope Leo X, was using part of the indulgence income to pay his bribery debts,[144] and did not reply to Luther's letter; instead, he had the theses checked for heresy and forwarded to Rome.[145]
Leo responded over the next three years, "with great care as is proper",[146] by deploying a series of papal theologians and envoys against Luther. He may have hoped the matter would die down of its own accord, because in 1518 he dismissed Luther as "a drunken German" who "when sober will change his mind".[147]
Luther's writings circulated widely, reaching France, England, and Italy as early as 1519, and students thronged to Wittenberg to hear him speak. He published a short commentary onGalatians and hisWork on the Psalms. At the same time, he received deputations from Italy and from theUtraquists of Bohemia;Ulrich von Hutten andFranz von Sickingen offered to place Luther under their protection.[148]
This early portion of Luther's career was one of his most creative and productive.[149] Three of his best known works were published in 1520:To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation,On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, andOn the Freedom of a Christian.
On 30 May 1519, when the Pope demanded an explanation, Luther wrote a summary and explanation of his theses to the Pope. While the Pope may have conceded some of the points, he did not like the challenge to his authority so he summoned Luther to Rome to answer these. At that pointFrederick the Wise, the Saxon Elector, intervened. He did not want one of his subjects to be sent to Rome to be judged by theCatholic clergy so he prevailed on the Holy Roman EmperorCharles V, who needed Frederick's support, to arrange a compromise.
An arrangement was effected, however, whereby that summons was cancelled, and Luther went to Augsburg in October 1518 to meet the papal legate, CardinalThomas Cajetan. The argument was long but nothing was resolved.
On 15 June 1520, the Pope warned Luther with thepapal bull (edict)Exsurge Domine that he riskedexcommunication unless he recanted 41 sentences drawn from his writings, including the95 Theses, within 60 days.
That autumn,Johann Eck proclaimed the bull in Meissen and other towns.Karl von Miltitz, a papalnuncio, attempted to broker a solution, but Luther, who had sent the Pope a copy ofOn the Freedom of a Christian in October, publicly set fire to the bull anddecretals at Wittenberg on 10 December 1520,[150] an act he defended inWhy the Pope and his Recent Book are Burned andAssertions Concerning All Articles.
As a consequence, Luther was excommunicated byLeo X on 3 January 1521, in the bullDecet Romanum Pontificem.
What had started as a strictly theological and academic debate had now turned into something of a social and political conflict as well, pitting Luther, his German allies and Northern European supporters againstCharles V, France, the Italian Pope, their territories and other allies. The conflict would erupt into a religious war after Luther's death, fueled by the political climate of theHoly Roman Empire and strong personalities on both sides.
In 1526, at theFirst Diet of Speyer, it was decided that, until aGeneral Council could meet and settle the theological issues raised by Martin Luther, theEdict of Worms would not be enforced and each Prince could decide if Lutheran teachings and worship would be allowed in his territories. In 1529, at theSecond Diet of Speyer, the decision of the previous Diet of Speyer was reversed—despite the strong protests of the Lutheran princes, free cities and someZwinglian territories. These states quickly became known asProtestants. At first, this termProtestant was used politically for the states that resisted the Edict of Worms. Over time, however, this term came to be used for the religious movements that opposed the Roman Catholic tradition in the 16th century.
Lutheranism would become known as a separate movement after the 1530Diet of Augsburg, which was convened by Charles V to try to stop the growingProtestant movement. At the Diet, Philipp Melanchthon presented a written summary of Lutheran beliefs called theAugsburg Confession. Several of the German princes (and later, kings and princes of other countries) signed the document to define "Lutheran" territories. These princes would ally to create theSchmalkaldic League in 1531, which led to theSchmalkald War, 1547, a year after Luther's death, that pitted the Lutheran princes of theSchmalkaldic League against the Catholic forces of Charles V.
After the conclusion of the Schmalkald War, Charles V attempted to impose Catholic religious doctrine on the territories that he had defeated. However, the Lutheran movement was far from defeated. In 1577, the next generation of Lutheran theologians gathered the work of the previous generation to define the doctrine of the persisting Lutheran church. This document is known as theFormula of Concord. In 1580, it was published with the Augsburg Confession, theApology of the Augsburg Confession, theLarge andSmall Catechisms of Martin Luther, theSmalcald Articles and theTreatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope. Together they were distributed in a volume entitledThe Book of Concord. This book is still used today.
Luther's followers and the Roman Catholic Church broke fellowship during the Protestant Reformation. In the years and decades following Luther's posting of the 95 theses on the door of the Wittenberg church, large numbers of Europeans abandoned observance of papal authority, including the majority ofGerman speakers. Following the Counter-Reformation, Catholic Austria and Bavaria, together with the electoral archbishops of Mainz, Cologne, and Trier consolidated the Catholic position on the German-speaking section of the European continent. Because Luther sparked this mass movement, he is known as the father of the Protestant Reformation, and the father of Protestantism in general.
The fall ofConstantinople in the East, 1453, led to a significant shift of gravity to the rising state of Russia, the "Third Rome". The Renaissance would also stimulate a program of reforms by patriarchs of prayer books. A movement called the "Old Believers" consequently resulted and influencedRussian Orthodox theology in the direction ofconservatism andErastianism.[citation needed]
The Roman CatholicCounter-Reformation spearheaded by theJesuits underIgnatius Loyola took their theology from the decisions of the Council of Trent, and developedSecond Scholasticism, which they pitted againstLutheran Scholasticism. The overall result of the Reformation was therefore to highlight distinctions of belief that had previously co-existed uneasily.
The Restoration Movement (also known as the "Stone-Campbell Movement") generally refers to the "American Restoration Movement", which began on the American frontier during theSecond Great Awakening of the early 19th century. The movement sought to reform the church and unite Christians.Barton W. Stone andAlexander Campbell each independently developed similar approaches to the Christian faith, seeking to restore the whole Christian church, on the pattern set forth in theNew Testament. Both groups believed that creeds kept Christianity divided. They joined in fellowship in 1832 with a handshake. They were united, among other things, in the belief that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, that churches celebrate theLord's Supper on thefirst day of each week, and thatbaptism of adult believers, by immersion in water, is a necessary condition forSalvation.
The Restoration Movement began as two separate threads, each of which initially developed without the knowledge of the other, during the Second Great Awakening in the early 19th century. The first, led byBarton W. Stone began atCane Ridge, Bourbon County, Kentucky. The group called themselves simplyChristians. The second, began in western Pennsylvania and Virginia (now West Virginia), led byThomas Campbell and his son,Alexander Campbell. Because the founders wanted to abandon all denominational labels, they used the biblical names for the followers of Jesus that they found in the Bible.[151]: 27 Both groups promoted a return to the purposes of the 1st century churches as described in the New Testament. One historian of the movement has argued that it was primarily a unity movement, with the restoration motif playing a subordinate role.[152]: 8
The Restoration Movement has seen several divisions, resulting in multiple separate groups. Three modern groups claim the Stone Campbell movement as their roots:Churches of Christ,Christian churches and churches of Christ, and theChristian Church (Disciples of Christ). Some see divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism, with the Churches of Christ and Christian churches and churches of Christ resolving the tension by stressing restoration while the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) resolved the tension by stressing ecumenism.[152]: 383
After the ReformationProtestant groups continued to splinter, leading to a range of new theologies. The "Enthusiasts" were so named because of their emotional zeal. These included theMethodists, theQuakers andBaptists. Another group sought to reconcile Christian faith with "Modern" ideas, sometimes causing them to reject beliefs they considered to be illogical, including theNicene creed andChalcedonian Creed. These includedUnitarians andUniversalists. A major issue for Protestants became the degree to which Man contributes to his salvation. The debate is often viewed assynergism versusmonergism, though the labelsCalvinist andArminian are more frequently used, referring to the conclusion of theSynod of Dort.
The 19th century saw the rise ofbiblical criticism, new knowledge of religious diversity in other continents and above all the growth of science. This led many church men to espouse a form ofDeism. This, along with concepts such as the brotherhood of man and a rejection ofmiracles led to what is called "Classic Liberalism". Immensely influential in its day, classic liberalism suffered badly as a result of the twoworld wars and the criticisms ofpostmodernism.
Vladimir Lossky is anEastern Orthodox theologian writing in the 20th century for the Greek church.
Well into the 20th century, Catholics—even if no longer resorting to persecution—still defined Protestants as heretics. Thus,Hilaire Belloc – in his time one of the most conspicuous speakers for Catholicism in Britain – was outspoken about the "Protestant Heresy". He even definedIslam as being "A Christian heresy", on the grounds that Muslims accept many of the tenets of Christianity but deny the godhood of Jesus (seeHilaire Belloc#On Islam).
However, in the second half of the century – and especially in the wake ofVatican II – the Catholic Church, in the spirit of ecumenism, tends not to refer toProtestantism as a heresy, even if the teachings of Protestantism are heretical from a Catholic perspective. Modern usage favors referring to Protestants as "separated brethren" rather than "heretics", although the latter is still on occasion used vis-a-vis Catholics who abandon their church to join a Protestant denomination. Many Catholics consider Protestantism to be material rather than formal heresy, and thus non-culpable.
Some of the doctrines of Protestantism that the Catholic Church considers heretical are the belief that theBible is the only source and rule of faith ("sola scriptura"), that faith alone can lead to salvation ("sola fide") and that there is no sacramental, ministerial priesthood attained by ordination, but only a universal priesthood of all believers.
Postmodern theology seeks to respond to the challenges of post modern and deconstructionist thought, and has included thedeath of God movement,process theology,feminist theology andQueer Theology and most importantlyneo-orthodox theology.Karl Barth,Rudolf Bultmann andReinhold Niebuhr were neo-orthodoxies main representatives. In particular Barth labeled his theology "dialectical theology", a reference toexistentialism.
The predominance of Classic Liberalism resulted in manyreactionary movements amongst conservative believers.Evangelical theology, Pentecostal orrenewal theology andfundamentalist theology, often combined withdispensationalism, all moved from the fringe into the academy.Marxism stimulated the significant rise ofLiberation theology which can be interpreted as a rejection of academic theology that fails to challengethe establishment and help the poor.
From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, groups established themselves that derived many of their beliefs from Protestant evangelical groups but significantly differed in doctrine. These include theJehovah's Witnesses, theLatter Day Saints and many so called "cults". Many of these groups use the Protestant version of the Bible and typically interpret it in a fundamentalist fashion, adding, however, special prophecy or scriptures, and typically denying the trinity and the full deity of Jesus Christ.
Ecumenical Theology sought to discover a common consensus on theological matters that could bring the manyChristian denominations together. As a movement it was successful in helping to provide a basis for the establishment of theWorld Council of Churches and for some reconciliation between more established denominations. But ecumenical theology was nearly always the concern of liberal theologians, often Protestant ones. The movement for ecumenism was opposed especially by fundamentalists and viewed as flawed by many neo-orthodox theologians.
Radical orthodoxy is a form of philosophical theology that has been influenced by theNouvelle Theologie, especially ofHenri de Lubac.
An ecumenical movement begun byJohn Milbank and others atCambridge, radical orthodoxy seeks to examine classic Christian writings and relatedneoplatonic texts in full dialogue with contemporary,philosophical perspectives. Predominantly Anglican and Roman Catholic in orientation, it has received positive responses from high places in those communions: one of the movement's founders,Catherine Pickstock, received a letter of praise fromJoseph Ratzinger before he became Pope, whileRowan Williams, theArchbishop of Canterbury, has contributed to the movement's publications. A major source of radical orthodoxy remains the Centre of Theology and Philosophy[2] at theUniversity of Nottingham.
Weak theology is a branch of postmodern Christianity that has been influenced by thedeconstructive thought ofJacques Derrida,[153] including Derrida's description of a moral experience he calls "the weak force."[154] Weak theology rejects the idea that God is an overwhelming physical ormetaphysical force. Instead, God is an unconditional claim without any force whatsoever. As a claim without force, the God of weak theology does not intervene in nature. As a result, weak theology emphasizes the responsibility of humans to act in this world here and now.[155]
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