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Chinese archaeology has been practiced since theSong dynasty (960–1279) with early practices ofantiquarianism. Althoughnative Chinese antiquarianism developed some rigorous methods of unearthing, studying, and cataloging ancient artifacts, the field ofarchaeologyin China never developed into a branch of study outside ofChinese historiography. Native Chinese antiquarian studies waned after the Song period but were revived during theQing dynasty (1644–1912). Rigorous standards of modern Chinese archaeology were first developed at the turn of the 20th century by Chinese archaeologists educated inthe West and in the earlyRepublic of China (1912–1949).
Archaeology in China is divided into two stages, namely traditional epigraphy and modern archaeology.
During theSong dynasty (960–1279), the Chinese gentry's antiquarian pursuits of art collecting, scholar-officials retrieved ancient relics fromarchaeological sites in order to revive the use of ancient vessels in ceremonies of state ritual.[2] Scholar-officials claimed to have discovered ancient bronze vessels that were created as far back as theShang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE), which bore thewritten characters of the Shang era.[3] Some attempted to recreate these bronze vessels by using imagination alone, not by observing tangible evidence of relics, a practice criticized byShen Kuo in hisDream Pool Essays published in 1088.[2] He also objected to the idea of his peers that ancient relics were created by famous "sages" in lore or theancient aristocratic class, rightfully observing the discovered handicrafts and ancient vessels as the work of artisans and commoners from previous eras.[2] Shen also disapproved of his peers' pursuit of archaeology simply to enhance state ritual, since he not only took aninterdisciplinary approach with the study of archaeology, but he also emphasized the study of functionality and investigating what was the ancient relics' original processes of manufacture.[2] Shen used ancient texts and existing models ofarmillary spheres to create one based on ancient standards and experimented withancient musical measures, making the suggestion to hangan ancient bell by a hollow handle.[2]
The scholarOuyang Xiu (1007–1072) analyzed alleged ancient artifacts bearing archaicinscriptions in bronze and stone, which he preserved in a collection of some 400rubbings;[4]Patricia Ebrey writes that he pioneered early ideas inepigraphy.[5]
TheKaogutu (考古圖) or "Illustrated Catalogue of Examined Antiquity" (preface dated 1092) compiled by Lü Dalin (呂大臨) (1046–1092) is one of the oldest knowncatalogues to systematically describe and classify ancient artifacts which were unearthed.[6] Another catalogue was theChong xiu Xuanhe bogutu (重修宣和博古圖) or "Revised Illustrated Catalogue of Xuanhe Profoundly Learned Antiquity" (compiled from 1111 to 1125), commissioned byEmperor Huizong of Song (r. 1100 – 1125), and also featured illustrations of some 840 vessels and rubbings.[1][4][7] This catalogue was criticized byHong Mai (1123–1202), who found that descriptions of certain ancient vessels dating to the Han dynasty were incorrect when he compared them to actualHan dynasty specimens he obtained for study.[7]
Song scholars established a formal system of dating these artifacts by examining their inscriptions, decorative motif styles, and physical shapes.[6]Zhao Mingcheng (1081–1129) stressed the importance of utilizing ancient inscriptions to correct discrepancies and errors in later texts discussing ancient events, such as with dates, geographical locations of historical events,genealogies, and official titles.[4][6][8]
Bruce G. Trigger writes that interests inantiquarian studies of ancient inscriptions and artifacts waned after the Song dynasty, but were revived by earlyQing dynasty (1644–1912) scholars such asGu Yanwu (1613–1682) andYan Ruoju (1636–1704).[1]Craig Clunas also states that epigraphic studies weren't revived until the Qing dynasty, but thatprinted copies of theChong xiu Xuanhe bogutu were widely circulated in the 16th century during theMing dynasty (1368–1644).[9] Trigger asserts thatarchaeology as a discipline of its own never developed in Chinauntil adoption of Western methods in modern times, and was always considereda branch ofhistoriography instead.[10]
Modern archaeology is the transformation and evolution of ancient Chinese archaeology, that is, traditional epigraphy to modern archaeology, and its characteristics are the collision and convergence of Eastern and Western academics.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the "Yigupai" emerged, and the historians were divided in the study of ancient Chinese history.Fu Sinian advocated using archaeology to solve this problem, and wanted to verify historical materials through underground cultural relics. He made great contributions to the excavation ofYin Ruins. Under the protection of Fu Sinian, the archaeological team of the Shiyu Institute conducted a total of 13 Yin Ruins excavation work.[11]
The continuous archaeology of the Yin Ruins cultivated the first generation of archaeologists in China who upheld modern scientific standards. The advancement of archaeology in mainstream Chinese science was developed by a group of leading archaeologists represented byLi Ji (1896–1979),Liang Siyong (1904–1954), andXia Nai (1910–1985), who received strict anthropological and archaeological training in the West. The establishment of the archaeological group of the Institute of History and Linguistics of theAcademia Sinica became a national-level institution specializing in archaeology at that time.
The establishment of theGeological Survey Institute in 1916 was a sign of the scientific research carried out by Chinese academic institutions in modern times. Under the leadership of the founder, Director Ding Wenjiang, geology has made great achievements in China, hired many foreign experts, trained a group of professional local field workers, disseminated a large amount of Western scientific knowledge, and made science fall in the practice, creating a new paradigm for scientific research in China.[12]
In 1921, the Swedish scholarJohan Gunnar Andersson discovered theYangshao culture and proposed a "Western Origin" for Chinese culture. Although later this view was largely abandoned in academia,[13] Andersson represented the spread of modern archaeology based on fieldwork and excavation materials to China.
In 1926, Li Ji excavated at the site of Xiyin Village, Xia County, Shanxi Province, which was the first field excavation conducted by Chinese scholars. In 1928, the archaeological group of the Shiyu Institute excavated the ruins of Yinxu.
Wang Guowei once proposed a "dual evidence method" that combines written documents and underground relics to study history. The "dual evidence method" not only promotes the new development of historical research, but also lays a foundation for archaeological research theoretically and methodically.
In the spring and autumn of 1931,Liang Siyong presided over the excavation of the Hougang site inAnyang,Henan province, where he found the specific layer relationship between theXiaotun culture,Longshan culture and Yangshao culture. Longshan culture was earlier than Xiaotun culture and later than Yangshao culture.
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