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Thehistory of Buddhism can be traced back to the 5th century BCE.Buddhism originated from Ancient India, in and around the ancient Kingdom ofMagadha, and is based on the teachings of the renunciateSiddhārtha Gautama. The religion evolved as it spread from the northeastern region of theIndian subcontinent throughoutCentral,East, andSoutheast Asia. At one time or another, it influenced most ofAsia.
The history of Buddhism is also characterized by the development of numerous movements,schisms, and philosophical schools. Among them were theTheravāda,Mahāyāna andVajrayāna traditions, with contrasting periods of expansion and retreat.
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Siddhārtha Gautama (5th cent. BCE) was the historical founder ofBuddhism. The early sources state he was born in the smallShakya (Pali: Sakya) Republic, which was part of theKosala realm ofancient India, now in modern-dayNepal.[1] He is thus also known as theShakyamuni (literally: "The sage of the Shakya clan").
TheEarly Buddhist Texts contain no continuous life of the buddha, only later after 200 BCE were various "biographies" with muchmythologicalembellishment written.[2] All texts agree however that Gautamarenounced the householder life and lived as asramanaascetic for some time studying under various teachers, before attainingnirvana (extinguishment) andbodhi (awakening) throughmeditation.
For the remaining 45 years of his life, he travelled theGangetic Plains of eastern-centralIndia (the region of theGanges River and its tributaries), teaching hisdoctrine to a diverse range of people from differentcastes and initiatingmonks into his order. The Buddha sent his disciples to spread the teaching across India. He also initiated an order ofnuns.[3] He urged his disciples to teach in the local language ordialects.[4] He spent a lot of his time near the cities ofSāvatthī,Rājagaha andVesālī (Skt. Śrāvastī, Rājagrha, Vāiśalī).[3] By the time of his death at 80, he had thousands of followers.
After the death of the Buddha, the Buddhistsangha (monastic community) remained centered on the Ganges valley, spreading gradually from its ancient heartland. Thecanonical sources record various councils, where the monasticSangha recited and organised the orally transmitted collections of the Buddha's teachings and settled certaindisciplinary problems within the community. Modern scholarship has questioned the accuracy andhistoricity of these traditional accounts.[5]
Thefirst Buddhist council is traditionally said to have been held just after Buddha'sParinirvana, and presided over byMahākāśyapa, one of his most senior disciples, at Rājagṛha (today'sRajgir) with the support of kingAjātasattu. According to Charles Prebish, almost all scholars have questioned the historicity of this first council.[6][page needed]
After an initial period of unity, divisions in the sangha or monastic community led to the first schism of the sangha into two groups: theSthavira (Elders) andMahasamghika (Great Sangha). Most scholars agree that the schism was caused by disagreements over points ofvinaya (monastic discipline).[14] Over time, these two monastic fraternities would further divide into variousEarly Buddhist Schools.
Lamotte and Hirakawa both maintain that the first schism in the Buddhist sangha occurred during the reign of Ashoka.[15][16] According to scholar Collett Cox "most scholars would agree that even though the roots of the earliest recognized groups predateAśoka, their actual separation did not occur until after his death."[17] According to the Theravada tradition, the split took place at theSecond Buddhist council, which took place atVaishali, approximately one hundred years after Gautama Buddha'sparinirvāṇa. While the second council probably was a historical event,[18] traditions regarding the Second Council are confusing and ambiguous. According to the Theravada tradition the overall result was the first schism in thesangha, between the Sthavira nikāya and the Mahāsāṃghikas, although it is not agreed upon by all what the cause of this split was.[19]
The Sthaviras gave birth to a large number of influential schools including theSarvāstivāda, thePudgalavāda (also known asVatsīputrīya), theDharmaguptakas and theVibhajyavāda (theTheravādins being descended from these). TheMahasamghikas meanwhile also developed their own schools and doctrines early on, which can be seen in texts like theMahavastu, associated with theLokottaravāda, or ‘Transcendentalist’ school, who might be the same as theEkavyāvahārikas or "One-utterancers".[20] This school has been seen as foreshadowing certainMahayana ideas, especially due to their view that all of Gautama Buddha's acts were "transcendental" or "supramundane", even those performed before his Buddhahood.[20]
In the third century BCE, some Buddhists began introducing new systematized teachings calledAbhidharma, based on previous lists or tables (Matrka) of main doctrinal topics.[21] Unlike theNikayas, which were prosesutras or discourses, the Abhidharma literature consisted of systematic doctrinal exposition and often differed across the Buddhist schools who disagreed on points of doctrine.[21] Abhidharma sought to analyze all experience into its ultimate constituents, phenomenal events or processes calleddharmas. These texts further contributed to the development of sectarian identities.[17] The various splits within the monastic organization went together with the introduction and emphasis onAbhidhammic literature by some schools. This literature was specific to each school, and arguments and disputes between the schools were often based on these Abhidhammic writings. However, actual splits were originally based on disagreements onvinaya (monastic discipline), though later on, by about 100 CE or earlier, they could be based on doctrinal disagreement.[22] Pre-sectarian Buddhism, however, did not have Abhidhammic scriptures, except perhaps for a basic framework, and not all of the early schools developed an Abhidhamma literature.
During the reign of theMauryan EmperorAshoka (268–232 BCE), Buddhism gained royal support and began to spread more widely, reaching most of the Indian subcontinent.[23] After hisinvasion of Kalinga,Ashoka seems to have experienced remorse and began working to improve the lives of his subjects.Ashoka also built wells, rest-houses and hospitals for humans and animals. He also abolished torture, royal hunting trips and perhaps even the death penalty.[24]Ashoka also supported non-Buddhist faiths likeJainism andBrahmanism.[25]Ashoka propagated religion by buildingstupas and pillars urging, among other things, respect of all animal life and enjoining people to follow theDharma. He has been hailed by Buddhist sources as the model for the compassionatechakravartin (wheel turning monarch).[23]
Another feature of Mauryan Buddhism was the worship and veneration ofstupas, large mounds which contained relics (Pali:sarīra) of the Buddha or other saints within.[26] It was believed that the practice of devotion to these relics and stupas could bring blessings.[26] Perhaps the best-preserved example of a Mauryan Buddhist site is theGreat Stupa of Sanchi (dating from the 3rd century BCE).[26]
According to the plates and pillars left by Aśoka (known as theEdicts of Ashoka), emissaries were sent to various countries in order to spread Buddhism, as far south asSri Lanka and as far west as the Greek kingdoms, in particular the neighboringGreco-Bactrian Kingdom, and possibly even farther to theMediterranean.
Theravadin sources state thatAshoka convened thethird Buddhist council around 250 BCE at Pataliputra (today'sPatna) with the elderMoggaliputtatissa.[25] The objective of the council was to purify the Saṅgha, particularly from non-Buddhist ascetics who had been attracted by the royal patronage.[27] Following the council, Buddhist missionaries were dispatched throughout the known world, as is recorded in some of the edicts of Ashoka.
Some of theEdicts of Ashoka describe the efforts made by him to propagate the Buddhist faith throughout the Hellenistic world, which at that time formed an uninterrupted cultural continuum from the borders of India to Greece. The edicts indicate a clear understanding of the political organization in Hellenistic territories: the names and locations of the main Greek monarchs of the time are identified, and they are claimed as recipients of Buddhistproselytism:Antiochus II Theos of theSeleucid Kingdom (261–246 BCE),Ptolemy II Philadelphos of Egypt (285–247 BCE),Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia (276–239 BCE),Magas (288–258 BCE) inCyrenaica (modernLibya), andAlexander II (272–255 BCE) inEpirus (modern NorthwesternGreece). One of the edicts states:
Furthermore, according to theMahavamsa (XII), some of Ashoka's emissaries were Greek (Yona), particularly one namedDhammarakkhita. He also issued edicts in the Greek language as well as in Aramaic. One of them, found in Kandahar, advocates the adoption of "piety" (using the Greek termeusebeia forDharma) to the Greek community.[28]
It is not clear how much these interactions may have been influential, but authors likeRobert Linssen have commented that Buddhism may have influenced Western thought and religion at that time. Linssen points to the presence of Buddhist communities in the Hellenistic world around that period, in particular inAlexandria (mentioned byClement of Alexandria), and to the pre-Christian monastic order of theTherapeutae (possibly a deformation of the Pāli word "Theravāda"[29]), who may have "almost entirely drawn (its) inspiration from the teaching and practices of Buddhist asceticism"[30] and may even have been descendants of Aśoka's emissaries to the West.[31] Philosophers likeHegesias of Cyrene andPyrrho are sometimes thought to have been influenced by Buddhist teachings.[32][33]
Buddhist gravestones from thePtolemaic period have also been found in Alexandria, decorated with depictions of the Dharma wheel.[34] The presence of Buddhists in Alexandria has even drawn the conclusion that they influenced monastic Christianity.[35] In the 2nd century CE, the Christian dogmatist,Clement of Alexandria recognized Bactrianśramanas and Indiangymnosophists for their influence on Greek thought.[36]
Sri Lankan chronicles like theDipavamsa state that Ashoka's sonMahinda brought Buddhism to the island during the 2nd century BCE. In addition, Ashoka's daughter,Saṅghamitta also established thebhikkhunī (order for nuns) in Sri Lanka, also bringing with her a sapling of the sacredbodhi tree that was subsequently planted inAnuradhapura. These two figures are seen as the mythical founders of the Sri LankanTheravada.[38] They are said to have converted the KingDevanampiya Tissa (307–267 BCE) and many of the nobility.
The first architectural records of Buddha images, however, actually come from the reign of KingVasabha (65–109 CE).[39] The major Buddhist monasteries and schools in Ancient Sri Lanka wereMahāvihāra,Abhayagiri andJetavana.[40] ThePāli canon was written down during the 1st century BCE to preserve the teaching in a time of war and famine.[41] It is the only complete collection ofBuddhist texts to survive in aMiddle Indo-Aryan language.[42] It reflects the tradition of theMahavihara school. LaterPaliMahavihara commentators of theTheravada such asBuddhaghoṣa (4th–5th century) andDhammapāla (5th–6th century), systematized the traditional Sri Lankan commentary literature (Atthakatha).
AlthoughMahāyāna Buddhism gained some influence in Sri Lanka as it was studied inAbhayagiri andJetavana, theMahavihara (“Great Monastery”) school became dominant in Sri Lanka following the reign ofParakramabahu I (1153–1186), who abolished the Abhayagiri and Jetavanin traditions.[43]
The Buddhist movement that became known as Mahayana (Great Vehicle) and also the Bodhisattvayana, began sometime between 150 BCE and 100 CE, drawing on bothMahasamghika andSarvastivada trends.[44] The earliest inscription which is recognizably Mahayana dates from 180 CE and is found inMathura.[45]
The Mahayana emphasized theBodhisattva path to fullBuddhahood (in contrast to the spiritual goal ofarhatship). It emerged as a set of loose groups associated with new texts named theMahayana sutras.[46] The Mahayana sutras promoted new doctrines, such as the idea that "there exist other Buddhas who are simultaneously preaching in countless other world-systems".[47] In time Mahayana Bodhisattvas and also multiple Buddhas came to be seen as transcendental beneficent beings who were subjects of devotion.[48]
Mahayana remained a minority among Indian Buddhists for some time, growing slowly until about half of all monks encountered byXuanzang in 7th-century India were Mahayanists.[49] Early Mahayana schools of thought included theMādhyamaka,Yogācāra, andBuddha-nature (Tathāgatagarbha) teachings. Mahayana is today the dominant form ofBuddhism in East Asia and Tibet.
Several scholars have suggested that thePrajñāpāramitā sūtras, which are among the earliest Mahāyāna sūtras,[50][51] developed among theMahāsāṃghika along theKṛṣṇa River in theĀndhra region ofSouth India.[52] The earliest Mahāyāna sūtras to include the very first versions of thePrajñāpāramitā genre, along with texts concerningAkṣobhya Buddha, which were probably written down in the 1st century BCE in the south of India.[53][54][55][56]A.K. Warder believes that "the Mahāyāna originated in the south of India and almost certainly in the Āndhra country."[57] Anthony Barber and Sree Padma also trace Mahayana Buddhism to ancient Buddhist sites in the lower Kṛṣṇa Valley, includingAmaravati Stupa,Nāgārjunakoṇḍā andJaggayyapeṭa.[58]
TheShunga dynasty (185–73 BCE) was established about 50 years after Ashoka's death. After assassinating KingBrhadrata (last of theMauryan rulers), military commander-in-chiefPushyamitra Shunga took the throne. Buddhist religious scriptures such as theAśokāvadāna allege that Pushyamitra (an orthodoxBrahmin) was hostile towards Buddhists and persecuted the Buddhist faith. Buddhists wrote that he "destroyed hundreds of monasteries and killed hundreds of thousands of innocent Monks":[60] 840,000 Buddhiststupas which had been built by Ashoka were destroyed, and 100 gold coins were offered for the head of each Buddhist monk.[61]
Modern historians, however, dispute this view in the light of literary and archaeological evidence. They opine that following Ashoka's sponsorship of Buddhism, it is possible that Buddhist institutions fell on harder times under the Shungas, but no evidence of active persecution has been noted.Etienne Lamotte observes: "To judge from the documents, Pushyamitra must be acquitted through lack of proof."[62]
Another eminent historian,Romila Thapar points to archaeological evidence that "suggests the contrary" to the claim that "Pushyamitra was a fanatical anti-Buddhist" and that he "never actually destroyed 840,000 stupas as claimed by Buddhist works, if any". Thapar stresses that Buddhist accounts are probably hyperbolic renditions of Pushyamitra's attack of the Mauryas, and merely reflect the desperate frustration of the Buddhist religious figures in the face of the possibly irreversible decline in the importance of their religion under the Shungas.[63]
During the period, Buddhist monks deserted theGanges valley, following either the northern road (uttarapatha) or the southern road (dakṣinapatha).[64] Conversely, Buddhist artistic creation stopped in the oldMagadha area, to reposition itself either in the northwest area ofGandhāra andMathura or in the southeast aroundAmaravati Stupa. Some artistic activity also occurred in central India, as inBhārhut, to which the Shungas may or may not have contributed.
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TheGreco-Bactrian kingDemetrius I (reigned c. 200–180 BCE) invaded the Indian Subcontinent, establishing anIndo-Greek kingdom that was to last in parts of Northwest South Asia until the end of the 1st century CE.
Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek and Greco-Bactrian kings. One of the most famous Indo-Greek kings isMenander (reigned c. 160–135 BCE). He may have converted to Buddhism[65] and is presented in the Mahāyāna tradition as one of the great benefactors of the faith, on a par with king Aśoka or the later Kushan kingKaniśka. Menander's coins bear designs of the eight-spokeddharma wheel, a classic Buddhist symbol.
Direct cultural exchange is also suggested by a dialogue called the Debate of King Milinda (Milinda Pañha) which recounts a discussion betweenMenander and the Buddhist monkNāgasena, who was himself a student of the Greek Buddhist monkMahadharmaraksita. Upon Menander's death, the honor of sharing his remains was claimed by the cities under his rule, and they were enshrined instupas, in a parallel with the historic Buddha.[66] Several of Menander'sIndo-Greek successors inscribed "Follower of the Dharma," in theKharoṣṭhī script, on their coins.[67]
During the first century BCE the firstanthropomorphic representations of the Buddha are found in the lands ruled by the Indo-Greeks, in a realistic style known asGreco-Buddhist.[68] Many of the stylistic elements in the representations of the Buddha point to Greek influence: theGreco-Romantoga-like wavy robe covering both shoulders (more exactly, its lighter version, the Greekhimation), thecontrapposto stance of the upright figures (see: 1st–2nd century Gandhara standing Buddhas[69]), the stylicizedMediterranean curly hair and topknot (ushnisha) apparently derived from the style of theBelvedere Apollo (330 BCE),[70] and the measured quality of the faces, all rendered with strong artisticrealism (See:Greek art). A large quantity ofsculptures combining Buddhist and purely Hellenistic styles andiconography were excavated at theGandharan site ofHadda.
Several influential Greek Buddhist monks are recorded.Mahadharmaraksita (literally translated as 'Great Teacher/Preserver of the Dharma'), was "a Greek ("Yona") Buddhist head monk", according to theMahavamsa (Chap. XXIX),[71] who led 30,000 Buddhist monks from "the Greek city of Alasandra" (Alexandria of the Caucasus, around 150 km north of today'sKabul inAfghanistan), to Sri Lanka for the dedication of theGreat Stupa inAnuradhapura during the rule (165–135 BCE) of KingMenander I.Dhammarakkhita (meaning:Protected by theDharma), was one of themissionaries sent by theMauryan emperorAshoka to proselytize theBuddhist faith. He is described as being a Greek (Pali: "Yona", lit. "Ionian") in the Sri LankanMahavamsa.
TheKushan empire (30–375 CE) was formed by the invadingYuezhi nomads in the 1st century BCE. It eventually encompassed much of northern India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Kushans adopted elements of the Hellenistic culture of Bactria and the Indo-Greeks.[72] During Kushan rule,Gandharan Buddhism was at the height of its influence and a significant number of Buddhist centers were built or renovated.[73]
The Buddhist art of KushanGandhara was a synthesis of Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian elements.[74] TheGandhāran Buddhist texts also date from this period. Written inGāndhārī Prakrit, they are the oldest Buddhist manuscripts yet discovered (c. 1st century CE).[75] According to Richard Salomon, most of them belong to theDharmaguptaka school.[76]
EmperorKanishka (128–151 CE) is particularly known for his support of Buddhism. During his reign, stupas and monasteries were built in the Gandhāran city ofPeshawar (Skt.Purusapura), which he used as a capital.[77] Kushan royal support and the opening of trade routes allowed Gandharan Buddhism to spread along theSilk Road toCentral Asia, theTarim Basin and thus to China.[77]
Kanishka is also said to have convened a major Buddhist council for theSarvastivada tradition, either inGandhara orKashmir.[78] Kanishka gathered 500 learned monks partly to compile extensive commentaries on theAbhidharma, although it is possible that some editorial work was carried out upon the existingSarvastivada canon itself. Allegedly during the council there were altogether three hundred thousand verses and over nine million statements compiled, and it took twelve years to complete. The main fruit of this council was the compilation of the vast commentary known as theMahā-Vibhāshā ("Great Exegesis"), an extensive compendium and reference work on a portion of the Sarvāstivādin Abhidharma.[79] Modern scholars such asEtienne Lamotte andDavid Snellgrove have questioned the veracity of this traditional account.[80][81]
Scholars believe that it was also around this time that a significant change was made in the language of the Sarvāstivādin canon, by converting an earlierPrakrit version intoSanskrit. Although this change was probably effected without significant loss of integrity to the canon, this event was of particular significance since Sanskrit was the sacred language ofBrahmanism in India, and was also being used by other thinkers, regardless of their specific religious or philosophical allegiance, thus enabling a far wider audience to gain access to Buddhist ideas and practices.
After the fall of the Kushans, small kingdoms ruled the Gandharan region, and later theHephthalite White Huns conquered the area (circa 440s–670). Under the Hephthalites, Gandharan Buddhism continued to thrive in cities likeBalkh (Bactria), as remarked byXuanzang who visited the region in the 7th century.[82] Xuanzang notes that there were over a hundred Buddhist monasteries in the city, including theNava Vihara as well many stupas and monks.[83] After the end of the Hephthalite empire, Gandharan Buddhism declined in Gandhara proper (in the Peshawar basin).[84] However it continued to thrive in adjacent areas like theSwat Valley of Pakistan,Gilgit,Kashmir and inAfghanistan (in sites such asBamiyan).[85]
Central Asia was home to the international trade route known as theSilk Road, which carried goods betweenChina,India, theMiddle East and theMediterranean world. Buddhism was present in this region from about the second century BCE.[86] Initially, theDharmaguptaka school was the most successful in their efforts to spread Buddhism in Central Asia.[87] TheKingdom of Khotan was one of the earliest Buddhist kingdoms in the area and helped transmit Buddhism from India to China.[88]
TheKushan Empire's unification of most of this area and their support of Buddhism allowed it to easily spread along the trade routes of the region throughout Central Asia.[77] During the first century CE under the Kushans, the Sarvastivada school flourished in this region, some of the monks also bringing Mahayana teachings with them.[86] Buddhism would eventually reach modern-dayPakistan,Kashmir,Afghanistan,Uzbekistan,Turkmenistan andTajikistan. As Buddhism reached many of these lands, Buddhists began to translate and produce texts in the local languages, such asKhotanese (aMiddle Iranian language),Sogdian (also Iranian),Uighur (Turkish),Tangut,Tibetan, and Chinese.[89]
Central Asians played a key role in the transmission of Buddhism to China The first translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were Iranians, including theParthianAn Shigao (c. 148 CE), theYuezhiZhi Qian and Kang Sengkai (from Samarkand).[90] Thirty-seven early translators of Buddhist texts are known, and the majority of them have been identified as hailing from the Iranian cultural sphere.[90] TheZoroastrianSassanian empire (226–651 CE) would eventually rule over many of these regions (such asParthia andSogdia), but they tolerated the Buddhist religion.[90]
However, during the mid-seventh century, theArab conquest of theIranian Plateau followed by theMuslim conquests of Afghanistan and the later establishment of theGhaznavid kingdom in Central Asia (c. 977–1186) led to the decline and eventual disappearance of Buddhism from most of these regions.[90]
Buddhism also flourished in the eastern part of central Asia, like theTarim Basin. Indians and Iranians lived in major cities of this region likeKashgar andKhotan.[90] The region has revealed extremely rich Buddhist works of art as well as Buddhist texts such asthose found in Dunhuang.Serindian art is highly reminiscent of the Gandhāran style, and scriptures in the Gandhāri scriptKharoṣṭhī have been found. TheUyghurs conquered the area in the 8th century and blended with the local Iranian peoples, absorbing the Buddhist culture of the region.[90] They were later absorbed by the MongolYuan dynasty.
Many printed Buddhist texts from the region date to the Yuan, and they were printed in the Uyghur, Xixia and Sanskrit languages.[90] The Uyghurs also restored cave temples and repainted Buddhist wall paintings such as atBezeklik.[90] Uyghur Buddhism was the last major Buddhist culture in Xinjiang and it lasted until the mid 14th century.[90] After theIslamicisation of Xinjiang, Buddhism ceased to be a major religion there.
![Landscape of Vikramashila university ruins, the seating, and meditation area. It was one of the most important centers of learning, during the Pala Empire, established by Emperor Dharmapala. Atiśa, the renowned pandita, is sometimes listed as a notable abbot.[91]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aVikramshilaRuins.jpg)
Buddhism continued to flourish in India during theGupta Empire (4th–6th centuries) which brought order to much of north India. Gupta rulers such asKumaragupta I (c. 414–455 CE) supported Buddhism. He enlargedNālandā university, which became the largest and most influential Buddhist university in India for many centuries.[92] Great Buddhist philosophers likeDignaga, andDharmakirti taught philosophy there. Nalanda remained a central place for the study ofepistemology (pramana).[93]
Another major Buddhist university wasValabhi, in western India, which was second only to Nalanda in the 5th century.[93] This influential university was founded and supported by theMaitraka dynasty.[94] It was mainly a center ofsravakayana Buddhism (that is, non-Mahayana), but was also a place for the study of numerous subjects including secular topics of higher education (such as medicine, logic and grammar).[95]
The influence of the Gupta style ofBuddhist art spread along with the faith from south-east Asia to China. During this period, Chinese pilgrims also visited India to study Buddhism.
One of these pilgrims wasFaxian, who visited India during the reign of the Gupta emperorChandragupta II in 405, and commented on the prosperity and mild administration of the Gupta empire. Another Chinese traveler who reached India after the end of the Guptas in the 7th century wasXuanzang. He reported in his travels across India that Buddhism was popular inAndhra Pradesh andTamil Nadu.[96] While reporting many deserted stupas in the area around modern dayNepal and the persecution of Buddhists byShashanka in the Kingdom ofGauda in modern-day West Bengal,Xuanzang complimented the patronage of emperorHarṣavardana (c. 590–647 CE).Xuanzang also noted that in various regionsBuddhism was giving way toJainism andHinduism.[97]
After the fall ofHarsha's empire, the Gangetic plain saw the rise of many small feuding kingdoms. This was to last until the rise of thePāla Empire (8th–12th centuries) in theBengal region. The Pālas were stanch supporters of Buddhism, and built several important Buddhist centers, such asVikramashila,Somapura andOdantapuri.[98] They also supported older centers like Nalanda andBodh Gaya. It was at these great Buddhist centers that scholars developed the philosophies ofVajrayana, Abhidharma, Madhyamaka, Yogacara and Pramana, as well as the study of linguistics, medicine, astronomy, music, painting, and sculpture.[99] Great Buddhist scholars such asAtisha andSantaraksita date from this period. Under thePālas, Vajrayana Buddhism thus flourished and spread toTibet,Bhutan andSikkim.
A milestone in the decline of Indian Buddhism in the North occurred in 1193 whenTurkic Islamic raiders underMuhammad Khilji burntNālandā. By the end of the 12th century, following the Islamic conquest of the Buddhist strongholds inBihar andBengal byDelhi Sultanate'sMuhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, and the loss of political support coupled with social pressures, the practice of Buddhism retreated to the Himalayan foothills in the North andSri Lanka in the south. Additionally, the influence of Buddhism also waned due to Hinduism's revival movements such asAdvaita, and the rise of thebhakti movement.
Under the Gupta and Pala empires, a Tantric Buddhist movement arose, variously named Vajrayāna, Mantrayāna, Tantric Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism. It promoted new practices such as the use ofmantras,dharanis,mudras,mandalas and the visualization of deities and Buddhas and developed a new class of literature, theBuddhist Tantras. The movement can be traced back to groups of wandering yogis calledmahasiddhas.[100]
Various classes of Vajrayana literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism andSaivism, especially the Buddhist Yogini tantras.[101][102] TheMañjusrimulakalpa, which later came to classified underKriyatantra, states that mantras taught in the Shaiva, Garuda and Vaishnava tantras will be effective if applied by Buddhists since they were all taught originally byManjushri.[103] The Guhyasiddhi of Padmavajra, a work associated with theGuhyasamaja tradition, prescribes acting as a Shaiva guru and initiating members intoSaiva Siddhanta scriptures and mandalas.[104] TheSamvara tantra texts adopted thepitha list from the Shaiva textTantrasadbhava, introducing a copying error where a deity was mistaken for a place.[105]
Buddhism arrived late in Tibet, during the 7th century. The form that predominated, via the south of Tibet, was a blend ofmahāyāna andvajrayāna from the universities of thePāla empire of the Bengal region in eastern India.[106]Sarvāstivādin influence came from the south west (Kashmir)[107] and the north west (Khotan).[108] Their texts found their way into theTibetan Buddhist canon, providing the Tibetans with almost all of their primary sources about theFoundation Vehicle. A subsect of this school,Mūlasarvāstivāda was the source of the TibetanVinaya.[108] Chan Buddhism was introduced via east Tibet from China and left its impression, but was rendered of lesser importance by early political events.[109]
From the outset, Buddhism was opposed by the native shamanisticBon religion, which had the support of the aristocracy, but with royal patronage, it thrived to a peak under KingRälpachän(817–836). Terminology in translation was standardised around 825, enabling a translation methodology that was highly literal. Despite a reversal in Buddhist influence which began under KingLangdarma (836–842), the following centuries saw a colossal effort in collecting available Indian sources, many of which are now extant only in Tibetan translation. Tibetan Buddhism was favored above other religions by the rulers of imperial Chinese and MongolYuan Dynasty (1271–1368).
Buddhism was introduced in China during theHan dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) and was present by around 50 CE.[110] Although the archaeological record confirms that Buddhism was introduced sometime during the Han dynasty, it did not flourish in China until the Six Dynasties period (220–589 CE).[111] The first documented Buddhist texts translated into Chinese are those of the ParthianAn Shigao (148–180 CE).[112] The first knownMahāyāna scriptural texts are translations into Chinese by the Kushan monkLokakṣema inLuoyang, between 178 and 189 CE.[113] Early translators faced the difficulty of communicating foreign Buddhist concepts to the Chinese, and often usedTaoist terminology to explain them. This has been called "concept-matching".[114] Later translators such asKumārajīva (334–413 CE) improved the translation methods of Chinese Buddhism considerably.[115]
Some of the earliest known Buddhist artifacts found in China are small statues on "money trees", dated c. 200 CE, in typical Gandhāran drawing style.[116] In the period between 460 and 525 CE during theNorthern Wei dynasty, the Chinese-constructedYungang Grottoes, and theLongmen Grottoes, which include some impressive monumental sculptures. In the fifth century, Chinese Buddhists also developed new schools and traditions, such as theTiantai school, theHuayen school, thePure Land school andChan Buddhism.[117]
Buddhism continued to grow during the earlyTang dynasty (618–907). It was during this dynasty that the Chinese monkXuanzang traveled to India, bringing back 657 Buddhist texts along with relics and statues.[118] He established a famed translation school in the Tang capital ofChang'an (today'sXi'an), focusing onYogacara school texts. Also during the Tang,Chinese Esoteric Buddhism was introduced from India.[119] The Tang dynasty also saw the growth ofChan Buddhism (Zen), with the great Zen masters such asMazu Daoyi andLinji Yixuan.[120] In the later Tang, Chinese Buddhism suffered a setback during theGreat Anti-Buddhist Persecution of 845.
Buddhism recovered during theSong dynasty (960–1279), which is known as the "golden age" of Chan.[121] During this period Chinese Chan influenced Korean and Japanese Buddhism.Pure Land Buddhism also became popular during this period and was often practiced together with Chan.[122] It was also during the Song that the entireChinese Buddhist canon was printed using over 130,000 wooden printing blocks.[123]
During theYuan dynasty,Tibetan Buddhism became the state religion.[124] During theMing (1368–1644), the Chan school became the dominant tradition in China and all monks were affiliated with Chan.[125] In the 17th century, Buddhism was spread toTaiwan by Chinese immigrants.[126]
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There is disagreement on when exactly Buddhism arrived inVietnam. Buddhism may have arrived as early as the 3rd or 2nd century BCE via India, or alternatively during the 1st or 2nd century from China.[127] Whatever the case,Mahayana Buddhism had been established by the second century CE in Vietnam. By the 9th century, bothPure Land andThien (Zen) were major Vietnamese Buddhist schools.[126] In the southernKingdom of Champa, Hinduism, Theravada, and Mahayana were all practiced until the 15th century, when an invasion from the north led to the dominance of Chinese-based forms of Buddhism. However Theravada Buddhism continues to exist in the south of Vietnam.[126] Vietnamese Buddhism is thus very similar to Chinese Buddhism and to some extent reflects the structure of Chinese Buddhism after the Song dynasty.[128] Vietnamese Buddhism also has a symbiotic relationship with Taoism, Chinese spirituality and the native Vietnamese religion.
Buddhism was introduced to theThree Kingdoms of Korea beginning around 372 CE.[129] During the 6th century, many Korean monks traveled to China and India to study Buddhism and various Korean Buddhist schools developed. Buddhism prospered in Korea during theNorth–South States Period (688–926) when it became a dominant force in society.[126] Buddhism continued to be popular in theGoryeo period (918–1392), in particular Seon (Zen) Buddhism.[130] However, during theConfucian Yi dynasty of theJoseon period, Buddhism faced a reversal of fortunes beginning with the confiscation of monastery lands, the closing of monasteries and the ban on ordination by aristocrats in the 15th century.[131]
Buddhism was introduced to Japan in the 6th century by Korean monks bearing sutras and an image of the Buddha.[132] During theNara Period (710–794), emperorShōmu ordered the building of temples throughout his realm.[133] Numerous temples and monasteries were built in the capital city ofNara, such as the five-storypagoda and Golden Hall of theHōryū-ji, or theKōfuku-ji temple. There was also a proliferation of Buddhist sects in the capital city of Nara, known as theNanto Rokushū (the Six Nara Sects).[134] The most influential of these being theKegon school (from the ChineseHuayan).[133]
During the late Nara, the key figures ofKūkai (774–835) andSaichō (767–822) founded the influential Japanese schools ofShingon andTendai, respectively.[135] An important doctrine for these schools washongaku (innate awakening or original enlightenment), a doctrine which was influential for all subsequent Japanese Buddhism.[136] Buddhism also influenced the Japanese religion ofShinto, which incorporated Buddhist elements.[136]
During the laterKamakura period (1185–1333), there were six new Buddhist schools founded which competed with the older Nara schools and are known as "New Buddhism" (Shin Bukkyō) orKamakura Buddhism. They include the influentialPure Land schools ofHōnen (1133–1212) andShinran (1173–1263), theRinzai andSoto schools of Zen founded byEisai (1141–1215) andDōgen (1200–1253) as well as theLotus Sutra school ofNichiren (1222–1282).[137]
Japanese Buddhist art was especially productive between the 8th and 13th centuries duringNara period (710–794),Heian period (794–1185) and Kamakura period (1185–1333). Buddhism, especially Zen, remained culturally influential during theAshikaga period (1333–1573) and theTokugawa era (1603–1867).
The rulers of the nomadic empires such as theXiongnu (209 BCE – 93 CE),Xianbei (93–234),Rouran Khaganate (late 4th c. – middle 6th c.) and theGöktürks (middle first mill. AD) received missionaries and built temples for them. Buddhism prevailed among aristocrats and was patronised by the monarchs of theXianbei-ledNorthern Wei dynasty (386–535) and of theKhitan-ledLiao dynasty (916–1125). The Khitans aristocracy regarded Buddhism as the culture of theUyghur Khaganate that dominated the Mongolian steppes before the rise of the Liao dynasty. The monarchs of theJurchen-ledJin dynasty (1115–1234) also regarded Buddhism as part of their culture.
Genghis Khan (c. 1162 – 1227) and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia andEuropean Russia and sent armies as far as central Europe and Southeast Asia. The emperors of theYuan dynasty (1271–1368) in the 13th and 14th century converted toTibetan Buddhism. The founder of the Yuan dynasty,Kublai Khan, invitedlamaDrogön Chögyal Phagpa of theSakya school of Tibetan Buddhism to spread Buddhism throughout his realm (the second introduction of Buddhism among the Mongols). Buddhism became thede factostate religion of the Yuan dynasty. In 1269, Kublai Khan commissioned Phagpa lama to design a new writing system to unify the writing systems of the multilingual empire. The'Phags-pa script, also known as the "Square script", was based on theTibetan script and written vertically from top was designed to write inMongolian,Tibetan,Chinese,Uighur andSanskrit languages and served as the official script of the empire. The activities of the Mongols were conducive to the prominency of the Sakya school and then the Gelug, and to the further development of Tibeto-Mongolian culture.[138]
TheMongols returned toshamanic traditions after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty in 1368 and during the Northern Yuan dynasty.
In 1578Altan Khan, a Mongol military leader with ambitions to unite the Mongols and to emulate the career ofGenghis Khan, invited the3rd Dalai Lama, the head of the rising Gelug lineage to a summit. They formed an alliance that gave Altan Khan legitimacy and religious sanction for his imperial pretensions and that provided the Buddhist school with protection and patronage. Altan Khan recognized Sonam Gyatso lama as a reincarnation ofPhagpa lama, gave the Tibetan leader the title ofDalai Lama ("OceanLama"), which his successors still hold. Sonam Gyatso, in turn, recognized Altan as a reincarnation of Kublai Khan.[139] Thus, Altan added legitimacy to the title "khan" that he had assumed, while Sonam Gyatso received support for the supremacy he sought over the Tibetan sangha. Since this meeting, the heads of the Gelugpa school became known as Dalai Lamas. Altan Khan also bestowed the title Ochirdara (Очирдар, from Sanskr. Vajradhara) to Sonam Gyatso.
Altan Khan died soon after, but in the next century Gelug Buddhism spread throughout Mongolia.
Since around 500 BCE, the culture of India has exerted influence onSoutheast Asian countries. Land and maritime trade routes linked India with the region and both Hindu and Buddhist beliefs became influential there during the period of theIndianization of Southeast Asia.[140] For more than a thousand years, Indian influence was, therefore, the major factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the various countries of the region. ThePāli andSanskrit languages and Indian scripts, together with Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhism,Brahmanism, andHinduism, were transmitted from direct contact and through sacred texts and Indian literature such as theRāmāyaṇa and theMahābhārata.[141]
From the 5th to the 13th centuries, South-East Asia saw a series of powerful states which were extremely active in the promotion of Buddhism and Buddhist art alongside Hinduism. The main Buddhist influence now came directly by sea from the Indian subcontinent, so that these empires essentially followed the Mahāyāna faith. Examples include mainland kingdoms likeFunan, theKhmer Empire and the Thaikingdom of Sukhothai as well as Island kingdoms like theKalingga Kingdom, theSrivijaya Empire,Mataram andMajapahit.
Buddhist monks traveled to China from the kingdom ofFunan in the 5th century CE, bringing Mahayana texts, a sign that the religion was already established in the region by this point.[142] Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were the main religions of theKhmer Empire (802–1431), a state that dominated most of the South-East Asian peninsula during its time. Under the Khmer, numerous temples, both Hindu and Buddhist, were built in Cambodia and in neighboring Thailand. One of the greatest Khmer kings,Jayavarman VII (1181–1219), built large Mahāyāna Buddhist structures atBayon andAngkor Thom.[143]
In theIndonesian island ofJava, Indianized kingdoms like theKalingga Kingdom (6–7th centuries) were destinations for Chinese monks seeking out Buddhist texts.[144] The MalaySrivijaya (650–1377), a maritime empire centered on the island ofSumatra, adopted Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism and spread Buddhism to Java, Malaya and other regions they conquered.[145]
The Chinese BuddhistYijing described their capital atPalembang as a great center of Buddhist learning where the emperor supported over a thousand monks at his court.[146]Yijing also testified to the importance of Buddhism as early as the year 671 and advised future Chinese pilgrims to spend a year or two inPalembang.[145]Atiśa studied there before travelling toTibet as a missionary. As Srivijaya expanded, Buddhism thrived and also became part of a localsyncretism that incorporated several different religions such as Hinduism and other indigenous traditions.[147]
In the island of Java, another kingdom also promoted Mahayana Buddhist culture, theMataram kingdom (732–1006), a major rival of Srivijaya. They are known for their monumentaltemple construction, especially the massiveBorobudur, as well asKalasan,Sewu, andPrambanan.[148]Indonesian Buddhism, alongside Hinduism, continued to thrive under theMajapahit Empire (1293–1527), but wascompletely replaced by Islam afterward.
The lands of theMon andPyu peoples in Myanmar show extensive evidence of Theravada presence in theIrrawaddy andChao Phraya basins from the 5th century CE onwards.[149] Theravada Buddhism in Burma initially coexisted with other forms of Buddhism and other religions.[149] After the decline of Buddhism in the Indian mainland, Theravada Buddhist monks from Sri Lanka mounted missionary efforts in Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos, and they were successful in converting all these regions toTheravada Buddhism.[150]
KingAnawrahta (1044–1078); the founder of thePagan Empire, adopted the Theravādin Buddhist faith from Sri Lanka, building numerous Buddhist temples at his capital ofPagan.[151] Invasions from the Burmese and the Mongols weakened Theravada in this region and it had to be reintroduced from Sri Lanka. During the MonHanthawaddy kingdom (1287–1552), Theravada Buddhism was the dominant religion in Burma, with strong ties to Sri Lankan Buddhism.[152] One of their kings,Dhammazedi, is particularly known for his reformation ofBurmese Buddhism from the Sri LankanMahavihara tradition between 1476 and 1479.[153] Theravada remained the official religion of the subsequent BurmeseTaungoo Dynasty (1510–1752).
During the reign of theKhmer KingJayavarman VII (r. c. 1181–1218), Theravada Buddhism was promoted by the royal family and Sri Lankan monks, including his son Tamalinda who himself had traveled to Sri Lanka. During the 13th and 14th centuries, Theravada became the dominant religion ofCambodia, and monasteries replaced the local priestly classes.[154] The Theravāda faith was also adopted by theThai kingdom ofSukhothai as the state religion during the reign ofRam Khamhaeng (1237/1247–1298).[155] Theravāda Buddhism was further reinforced during theAyutthaya period (14th–18th century), becoming an integral part of Thai society.
Themodern era brought new challenges to the Buddhist religion such as thecolonization of traditionally Buddhist Asian countries by Western states, which weakened the traditional political structures which supported the religion, as well as criticism and competition fromChristianity.[156] Modern wars,communist anti-religious pressure, the growth ofcapitalism, modern science and regional political instability are also influential pressures on modern Buddhism.
![Deekshabhoomi monument, located in Nagpur, Maharashtra where B. R. Ambedkar converted to Buddhism in 1956, is the largest stupa in Asia.[157]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aDeekshabhoomi_-_panoramio.jpg)
InBritish Ceylon,Christian missionaries ran all the state-approved schools and commonly criticized Buddhist beliefs.[158] By 1865, Buddhist monks began a counter movement against Christian attacks, printing pamphlets and debating Christians in public, such as at the famous Panadura debate in 1873, which saw the monkGunananda win a debate in front of a crowd of 10,000.[159]
During this period a new form of Buddhism began to take shape, termedBuddhist modernism (or sometimes "Protestant Buddhism"), which tended to see the Buddha from a humanist point of view and claimed that Buddhism was a rational and scientific religion.[159] Important figures in this new movement include the American convertHenry Olcott (1832–1907) andAnagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933), who promoted Buddhist schools, lay organizations and the printing of newspapers.[159] Dharmapala also founded theMahā Bodhi Society to restore the dilapidated Indian site of Bodh Gaya.[160] Dharmapala also traveled to the UK and the US to teach Buddhism.
This society helped usher in arevival of Buddhism in India, where Buddhism became popular among some Indian intellectuals.[161] One of these was the lawyerB. R. Ambedkar (1891–1956), leader of theDalit Buddhist movement, who urged low caste IndianDalits to convert to Buddhism. Other Indian figures includeRahul Sankrityayan (1893–1963),Dharmanand Kosambi (1876–1941) andBhadant Anand Kausalyayan.[162]
InBurma, a central modern figure isKing Mindon (r. 1853–1878), who convened the5th Buddhist council (1868–71), where different editions of thePali Canon were cross-checked and a final version was inscribed on729 stone slabs, currently still the world's largest book.[163] A new meditation movement arose in Burma, called theVipassana movement, beginning with figures such asMedawi (1728–1816), who was instrumental in the promotion of Buddhist meditation practices.[164] In 1956, Burmese politicianU Nu presided over asixth council, which saw monks from various Theravada countries produce another new edition of thePali Canon.[165] Recently, Buddhist monks have become involved in political protest movements such as theSaffron Revolution of 2007.
Thailand, which was the only country to avoid colonization, had two important Buddhist kings, who pushed for modernization and reformation of the Buddhist sangha. They wereKing Mongkut (r. 1851–68), and his sonKing Chulalongkorn (r. 1868–1910), who were responsible for several key modern reforms ofThai Buddhism.[166] Two recent Thai modernist movements are the monastic revival of theThai forest tradition and theWat Phra Dhammakāya movement.
From 1893,Vietnam,Cambodia andLaos were all French colonies. The Communists came to power in Laos in 1975. There was no widespread repression of the Buddhist sangha, but the communist government has sought to control the Sangha and use it as a tool to spread its ideology.[167] In Cambodia however, the communist terror of theKhmer Rouge during 1975–1979 caused much damage to the Buddhist sangha.[167]
Theopening of Japan in 1853 byAdmiral Perry and theMeiji Restoration of 1868 led to the end of feudal Japan and rapid modernization.[168] A new form ofState Shinto arose as a strong competitor to Buddhism when it was adopted by the Japanese government. In 1872, the Japanese government decreed that Buddhist clerics could marry. These changes led to modernization efforts byJapanese Buddhism which saw the setting up of publishing houses and the study of Western philosophy and scholarship.[168] In the post-war period,Japanese new religions arose, many of them influenced by Buddhism.
Chinese Buddhism meanwhile, suffered much destruction during the Christian-inspiredTaiping rebellion (1850–64), but saw a modest revival during theRepublican period (1912–49).[169] A key figure wasTaixu (T’ai-hsü, 1899–1947), who is associated with the modernistHumanistic Buddhism trend of Chinese Buddhism. The CommunistCultural Revolution (1966–76) led to the closing of all Buddhist monasteries and widespread destruction of Buddhist institutions. However, since 1977, there has been a general shift in the policy of the communist government, and Buddhist activity, both monastic and lay, has once again been renewed.[170]
Korean Buddhism suffered a series of setbacks during theJapanese invasions, occupation, and also during theKorean war.North Korea's harsh government nevertheless offers some limited support to the sangha, but it closely controls all activity. InSouth Korea, Buddhism underwent a revival, with youth groups being influential and temples being rebuilt with government aid.[171][172] An example of a recent modern form of Korean Buddhism isWon Buddhism.
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Tibet (which had been a client state of the Qing dynasty) remained a traditional theocratic state (theGanden Phodrang polity) with theDalai Lamas as heads of state, from 1912 until the Chinesecommunist invasion in 1950. The14th Dalai Lama fled the country in 1959.[173] ATibetan exile community was established in India, with its center atDharamsala, which today contains various Buddhist monasteries and is a center for the study of Tibetan Buddhism. The 14th Dalai Lama has become one of the most popular Buddhist leaders in the world today.
During theRed Guard period (1966–67), Chinese communists destroyed around 6,000 monasteries in Tibet along with their art and books, an attempt to wipe out the Tibetan Buddhist culture.[173] After 1980, Chinese repression of Tibetan Buddhism has decreased and the situation has improved with the reprinting of theTibetan Canon and some artistic restoration.[173] In the nearby countries ofBhutan, andNepal,Vajrayana Buddhism continues to flourish as a major religion.
InMongolia, which also has Tibetan Buddhism as its main religion,communist rule (between 1924 and 1990) saw much repression of Buddhism. However, Buddhism is now undergoing a revival in post-communist Mongolia, with more ordained monks and nuns, and with 284 monasteries since 2009.[174] More recent liberal attitudes towards religion has also benefited the Buddhists ofTuva andBuryatia, as well as the Chinese region ofInner Mongolia.[174]
Another modern development was the founding of theKalmyk Khanate in the 17th century withTibetan Buddhism as its main religion. During the course of the 18th century, they were absorbed by theRussian Empire asKalmykia, which remains a federal subject of Russia with a majority Buddhist religion.[175]
During the 19th century, Western intellectuals became more aware of Buddhism through various contacts such as colonial servants, administrators, and Christian missionaries. Sir Edwin Arnold's book-length poemThe Light of Asia (1879), a life of the Buddha, was a successful early publication on Buddhism that led to much interest among English speaking middle classes.[177] The work of westernBuddhist scholars likeHermann Oldenberg (1854–1920),T. W. Rhys Davids (1843–1922) andF. Max Müller was also influential in introducing Buddhism to western audiences.[178]
The late 19th century also saw the first-known modern western conversions to Buddhism, including leading TheosophistsHenry Steel Olcott andHelena Blavatsky in 1880 in Sri Lanka. The Theosophical Society was very influential in popularizing Indian religions in the west.[179] The 19th century also saw the first western monastics such asU Dhammaloka,Ananda Metteyya and the GermanNyānatiloka Thera (1878–1956).
Another important element leading to the growth of Buddhism in the west was the large scale immigration of Chinese and Japanese to the United States and Canada in the late 19th century.[180] Refugees from Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia have also immigrated to west, beginning in 1975.[181] Asian Buddhists such asDT Suzuki,Hsüan Hua,Hakuun Yasutani andThích Nhất Hạnh were influential in teachingZen Buddhism in the West in the 20th century.Shunryu Suzuki opened theSotoSan Francisco Zen Center (1961) and theTassajara Monastery (1967).[182]
TheTibetan diaspora has also been active in promoting Tibetan Buddhism in the West. All of the four major Tibetan Buddhist schools have a presence in the West and have attracted Western converts.[183] The number of its adherents is estimated to be between ten and twenty million.[184]
The Theravada tradition has established various temples in the West, especially among immigrant communities in the US. Theravadavipassana meditation was also established in the West, through the founding of institutions like theInsight Meditation Society in 1975 and the vipassana centers ofS. N. Goenka.[185] TheThai forest tradition has also established communities in the US and in the UK. In the UK, theTriratna Buddhist Community arose as a new modern Buddhist movement.[186]
InContinental Europe, interest in Buddhism also increased during the late 20th century, with an exponential increase inBuddhist groups in countries like Germany.[187] InFrance and Spain, Tibetan Buddhism has the largest following.[188] Tibetan, East Asian and Theravada traditions are now also present and active inAustralia andNew Zealand.[189] Tibetan and Zen Buddhism also have established a small presence inArgentina,Brazil, Chile, Colombia and Venezuela.[190]
In the past it was not uncommon for historians to conflate the vast space thus outlined with the oppressive realm described in the Arthashastra and to posit one of the earliest and certainly one of the largest totalitarian regimes in all of history. Such a picture is no longer considered believable; at present what is taken to be the realm of Ashoka is a discontinuous set of several core regions separated by very large areas occupied by relatively autonomous peoples.
Magadha power came to extend over the main cities and communication routes of the Ganges basin. Then, under Chandragupta Maurya (c.321–297 bce), and subsequently Ashoka his grandson, Pataliputra became the centre of the loose-knit Mauryan 'Empire' which during Ashoka's reign (c.268–232 bce) briefly had a presence throughout the main urban centres and arteries of the subcontinent, except for the extreme south.
The philosopher Hegesias of Cyrene (nicknamedPeisithanatos, 'The advocate of death') was a contemporary of Magas and was probably influenced by the teachings of the Buddhist missionaries to Cyrene and Alexandria. His influence was such that he was ultimately prohibited from teaching.
Lamaism (Vajrayana/Tibetan/Tantric) — 20,000,000
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