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History |
Conservatism inNew Zealand, though related to its counterparts in otherWestern countries, developed uniquely over time. Advocates followed apolitical ideology that emphasised the preservation of traditional Europeanbeliefs,institutions and practices.
Initiallyconservatism was a philosophy used by the "men in possession" of a new country, but most of all it espoused the spirits of individualism akin toHerbert Spencer's theories. Prior to the mid-1870s, New Zealand's political factions were based less on ideologies and more onprovincial allegiances.[1] This was to change however, with members ofparliament becoming more identifiable as one of two groups—"Conservative" or "Liberal"—akin to Britain. The labels often walked hand in hand with each MP's stance on land policy. Nearly all those calling themselves conservatives supported freehold policy, while those labelled as liberals advocated for leasehold legislature.[2]
From 1876 to 1890 the conservative factions dominated theHouse of Representatives. The so-called "Continuous Ministry" governed almost this whole period, with two breaks from October 1877 to October 1879 and August 1884 to October 1887, when "Liberal" ministries were formed underGeorge Grey andRobert Stout, respectively. The Continuous Ministry was governing once again in 1887–88, the worst years of theLong Depression, when PremierHarry Atkinson became very unpopular, even with the wealthy his erstwhile supporters. The ensuing election in1890 was a disaster. An ailing Atkinson resigned and a new ministry was formed underJohn Ballance, leader of the progressiveNew Zealand Liberal Party, the first organised political party in the country[3]
The beginning of party politics in New Zealand was a setback for conservative-oriented politicians, worsened by the accession of the immensely popularRichard Seddon to the premiership backed by a well-organised Liberal machine. His opponents struggled to set up an equivalent full-scale organisation in competition to the Liberal Party. Conservative politicians operated under various banners in this period such as the Political Reform Association (1887–91), the National Association (1891–99) and the Political Reform League (1905), with Leader of the OppositionWilliam Massey accepting endorsement from the latter in the1905 and1908 elections.[4] The conservatives struggled to contrast with appeal against Seddon and his Liberal political vehicle.William Pember Reeves, when asked of what differentiated the Conservatives from the Liberals in parliament, phrased them as "parties of resistance and progress" respectively.[5]
Atkinson had some respite, stacking the Legislative Council with fellow conservatives, to control the Liberals from the upper house (often compared to the period 1906–11 in Britain where the Liberal government was blocked by peers in the House of Lords). Ballance eventually got his way with the Governor General by limiting the term of a MLC from life to seven years. However, the Liberals were not able to fully claim the upper house from the Conservatives until 1899.[6] The beginning of the 1900s was the weakest point in New Zealand conservatism. Helped byjingoism in theSecond Boer War, Seddon was at the height of his power, reigning supreme over parliament. By contrast, the Conservatives were disorganised, demoralised and, by 1901, leaderless. In 1902 aSydney newspaper said of the Conservatives:
They have hardly [in 12 years] carried even a snatch division on a question about a culvert on a back country road. They could hardly remember how to draft a bill now, and they have forgotten what success looks like.[7]
The Conservatives began to improve, with many initial supporters of the Liberals now defecting upon having now received the reforms they wanted in the 1890s. In the election of1908 election, the Conservatives improved remarkably, gaining ten seats. Of further aid to the Conservative cause was the emergence of independent Labour parties who were leeching away supporters from the Liberals, particularly in cities.[8]
In February 1909 Massey announced the formation of theReform Party, New Zealand's first true right-wing political party, in his attempts to establish a credible vision to there being a possible alternative government to challenge the long established Liberal dominance. The name "Reform" was not new, but it served its purpose to efface the "Conservative" branding and party-image with which Massey's supporters were viewed.[4]
The plan worked and following the1911 election, the Liberals were ousted from power in a no-confidence motion, 41 votes to 33 on 5 July 1912.[9] Massey became Prime Minister and formed the first non-Liberal government in 21 years.[10][11]
In government, the Reform Party adopted several conservative policies on private land ownership and overseas borrowing, advocated low taxes andsmall government, and represented the interests of farming and business communities. The Reform Party remained in government between 1912 and 1928 and governed incoalition with theUnited Party, a remnant of the former New Zealand Liberal Party, between 1931 and 1935.[11][12] The Reform Party also received some conservative urban support from theProtestant Political Association.[13] During theGreat Depression, the United-Reform coalition faced competition from other conservative groups including theNew Zealand Legion andsupporters ofC.H. Douglas'social credit theory.[14] During the1935 New Zealand general election, the United and Reform parties campaigned as the National Political Federation, but were defeated by theNew Zealand Labour Party which would govern New Zealand for the next 14 years.[12][15] The Reform-United coalition was reduced to 19 Members of Parliament (MPs) including two pro-NationalMāori MPs.[13][12]
TheNew Zealand National Party was formed in May 1936 through the merger of the Reform and United parties following a conference at the Dominion Farmers Institute Building Conference Hall inWellington.[12][16] The formation of the National Party marked the beginning of an era of largely two-party Parliaments which lasted until the 1990s.[11] Former United leader and Prime MinisterGeorge Forbes served as the first leader of the National Party until 1936, when he was succeeded byAdam Hamilton. Hamilton was succeeded bySidney Holland, who served as party leader until 1957 and as Prime Minister between 1949 and 1957.[12] As a conservativeBaptist andBritish Empire loyalist, Holland advocated individualism, economic liberalism and opposed socialism.[12][17]
During the 20th and early 21st centuries, the National Party built a reputation for advocating free enterprise, self reliance, individual freedom andsmall government.[11] According to Colin James, the party's principles, policies and membership have embodied four broad tendencies: conservatism, liberalism,populism andlibertarianism. National's conservative tendency has focused on preserving the status quo, centering the individual and family as the foundations of a cohesive society and favouring moderation over reactionary policies. The party's liberal tendency has focused on individual liberty, free markets, private enterprise and small government while acknowledging the need for awelfare state and public education system. National's populist tendency has focused on majoritarian opposition to socio-economic pressures while its libertarian tendency has advocated individualism, lower taxation, minimal government and greater choice in education and health services. According to James, the conservative and liberal tendencies have been the dominant forces within the parties while the populist and libertarian tendencies have been outliers; with their adherents often leaving National for alternative parties such as the populistNew Zealand First and libertarianACT New Zealand.[18][19]
According to James, notable self-described conservative leaders in the National Party have includedDeputy Prime Minister and Prime MinisterBill English and MPSimon Upton, who emphasised preserving the best elements of society including social order, personal and community responsibility, and conserving natural resources for future generations.[20] James has described Prime MinisterJohn Marshall and party leaderJim McLay as self-described liberal figures who advocated classical liberal positions such as liberty, individual rights, property ownership and capitalism.[21] James has argued that several National Prime Ministers including Sidney Holland,Keith Holyoake and John Marshall practiced a mixture of liberal and conservative policies including preserving the welfare state while promoting individual rights, responsibility, property ownership and the free market.[22] James has described Prime MinisterRobert Muldoon as a populist due to his adoption of utilitarian programmes designed to appeal to the needs, fears and prejudices of "ordinary blokes" and his aggressive treatment of opponents and critics, which many alienated liberals and some conservatives within the party. Muldoon's discipleWinston Peters became the party's next populist standard bearer before leaving in 1992 to form theNew Zealand First party, which absorbed much of National's populist tendency.[20] James has also described National MP andFinance MinisterRuth Richardson as a radical libertarian due to her adherence to the free market theories ofAdam Smith,Friedrich Hayek,Milton Friedman, theChicago andVirginian schools of economic thought. As Finance Minister, Richardson implemented the controversialeconomic reforms of theBolger National Government. After leaving Parliament in 1994, Richardson joined the libertarian ACT party.[23]
Below is a list of the leading figures among the right wing members of parliament from the forming of theContinuous Ministry until the establishment of theReform Party.
Conservatives Liberals Liberal Party
| No. | Name | Portrait | Term of Office | Prime Minister | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Harry Atkinson |  | 1 September 1876 | 29 July 1878 | Atkinson 1876–77 | ||
| Grey 1877–79 | |||||||
| 2 | William Fox |  | 29 July 1878 | 6 September 1879 | |||
| 3 | John Hall |  | 6 September 1879 | 21 April 1882 | |||
| Hall 1879–82 | |||||||
| 4 | Frederick Whitaker |  | 21 April 1882 | 25 September 1883 | Whitaker 1882–83 | ||
| (1) | Harry Atkinson | | 25 September 1883 | 24 January 1891 | Atkinson 1883–84 | ||
| Stout 1884–87 | |||||||
| Atkinson 1887–91 | |||||||
| 5 | John Bryce |  | 23 January 1891 | 31 August 1891 | Ballance 1891–93 | ||
| 6 | William Rolleston | .jpg) | 31 August 1891 | 8 November 1893 | |||
| Seddon 1893–1906 | |||||||
| 7 | William Russell |  | 26 June 1894 | 3 July 1901 | |||
| 8 | William Massey |  | 11 September 1903 | 11 February 1909 | |||
| Hall-Jones 1906 | |||||||
| Ward 1906–12 | |||||||
