Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps, such as PrivateFrance Silva who during theBoxer Rebellion became the first Marine of the thirteen Marines of Latin American descent to be awarded theMedal of Honor,[1] and Private First ClassGuy Gabaldon who is credited with capturing over 1,000 enemy soldiers and civilians during World War II,[2] have distinguished themselves in combat. Hispanics have participated as members of the United States Marine Corps in the Boxer Rebellion, World War I, the American intervention in Latin America also known as the Banana Wars, World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Gulf War and most recently in the military campaigns of Afghanistan and Iraq.
Hispanics are also reaching the top ranks of the Marine Corps, serving their country in sensitive leadership positions on domestic and foreign shores, with generals such as Major GeneralAngela Salinas and Lieutenant GeneralPedro del Valle.[3] Many Hispanic Marines went on to distinguished careers outside of the military in different fields such as sports and space exploration.
Hispanics (sometimes also referred to as "Latinos"[4]) in the Marine Corps account for the largest minority group of that military institution. Hispanics comprise 18% of enlisted Marines today, up from 15% when theIraq War began.[5] The United States Marine Corps has implemented an aggressive recruitment program directed towards Hispanics,[6] which is the nation's largest ethnic or minority race (2005 Census).[7] According to theU.S. Census Bureau the estimated 2010 Hispanic population of the United States is over 50 million, or 16% of the U.S. population.[8][9] The 2010 U.S. Census estimate of over 50 million Hispanics in the U.S. doesnot include the 3.9 million residents ofPuerto Rico.
Hispanic is anethnic term employed to categorize any citizen or resident of the United States, of any racial background, of any country, and of any religion, who has at least one ancestor from the people of Spain or is of non-Hispanic origin, but has an ancestor from Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Central or South America, or some other Hispanic origin. The three largest Hispanic groups in the United States are theMexican-Americans,Puerto Ricans andCubans. People of Spain and their direct descendants in the United States are not considered of "Hispanic" ethnicity, but rather as Europeans or European Americans of European (Spanish) origin in accordance to the established definition of the term.[10]
Originally organized as theContinental Marines on November 10, 1775, as navalinfantry, the Marine Corps has evolved in its mission with changing military doctrine andAmerican foreign policy. The Marine Corps has participated inevery American armed conflict including theRevolutionary War.[11]
There are various factors that make it difficult to determine when exactly Hispanics began to serve in the Corps; one is that statistics on Hispanics were not kept by the military until the 1970s when the United States Census Bureau coined the phrase. Before then only unreliable estimates were made.[12] For example, during World War II Hispanic Americans were estimated to comprise 2.3% to 4.7% of the Armed Forces. However, the exact number is unknown, as at the time Hispanics were integrated into the generalwhite population census count. Separate statistics were kept forAfrican Americans andAsian Americans.[13] Another factor is that the estimates which have been made only take into account individuals whose surname is of Hispanic origin, when there are many Hispanics with non-Hispanic surnames who have served.[14][15]
Unlike theUnited States Army, which had an all Puerto Rican unit (the65th Infantry Regiment) and other units in the Southwest region of the United States mostly made up of Hispanics, the Marines have never had any Hispanic-oriented units.[16]
As of 2003, those who join the U.S. Armed Forces are not required to identify themselves as Hispanics, therefore a person of Hispanic descent who decides that he or she does not want to be considered as a Hispanic and chooses to identify themself with any race was not included in the statistics of theDepartment of Defense as Hispanics.[14][17]
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While specific statistics were not kept on the number of Hispanics in the Marine Corps, history documents instances of their heroic actions. During theBoxer Rebellion, PrivateFrance Silva (1876–1951) became the first Marine of Hispanic descent to be awarded the Medal of Honor,[18] the highestmilitary decoration awarded by theUnited States government.
Private Silva joined the Marines on September 12, 1899, in San Francisco. In 1900, he was a member of the1st Regiment (Marines) under the command of MajorLittleton Waller, aboard theUSS Newark (C-1).[19] On May 20, 1900, theUSS Newark (C-1), aUnited States Navyprotected cruiser and the first modern cruiser in the U.S. fleet, sailed for China to help land reinforcements to relieve the legations under siege by the Boxers atPeking in what is known as the Boxer Rebellion. TheNewark arrived atTientsin on May, 22. On May, 31, CaptainJohn T. Myers, USMC, arrived in Peking in overall command of two ship detachments of U.S. Marines. This newly formed Legation Guard consisted of twenty-five Marines from theUSS Oregon (BB-3) along with twenty-three Marines and five sailors from the USSNewark. Private Silva was one of theNewark Marines who were a part of the Legation Guard.[20]
On June 19, 1900, the 1st Regiment (Marines) attempted to take the city of Tientsin and failed. Then, on June 23, the Regiment, under the command of Major Waller, entered Tientsin in their second attempt after a Japanese blew open a gate to allow the Chinese to escape.[21] Private Silva, who was seriously wounded and two sailors, Navy Seaman Axel Westermark and Chief Machinist Emil Peterson, were awarded the Medal of Honor for their defense of the civilian compound (legation) at Peking—they defended the walled city from June 28 until the fall of the city which occurred on August 17.[22]
During World War I, the Marine Corps' 2nd Division fought alongside theU.S. Army's 36th Infantry Division in the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge inChampagne, France. The result of this battle was the expulsion of the Germany Army from theChampagne Region.[23]
Private Joe Nichols Viera of the 78th Company,6th Regiment,2nd Marine Division, was awarded theNavy Cross, the second highest Military decoration which can be awarded by the U.S. Navy to members of the U.S. Navy or U.S. Marine Corps for heroism or distinguished service. On October 3, 1918, Viera, captured three enemy machine gun nests and with the aid of another Marine captured forty enemy soldiers in theBattle of Blanc Mont Ridge. He was also awarded theDistinguished Service Cross, theUnited States Army second military decoration, for heroism.[24]
Marine aviation was fairly new, it came into existence on May 22, 1912, and the first major expansion of the Marine Corps' air component, of which Puerto Rico played a major rule, came with America's entrance into World War I. On January 6, 1914, First Lieutenant Bernard L. Smith established the Marine Section of the Navy Flying School in the island municipalCulebra.[25] As the number of Marine Aviators grew so did the avid desire to separate fromNaval Aviation.[26] By doing so, the Marine Aviation was designated as separate from the United States Naval Aviation. The creation of a "Marine Corps Aviation Company in Puerto Rico consisted of 10 officers and 40 enlisted men.[27]
In 1915, LieutenantPedro Augusto del Valle, fromSan Juan, Puerto Rico, graduated from theUnited States Naval Academy inAnnapolis,Maryland.[28]Lieutenant del Valle helped the Marine Corps in the capture ofSanto Domingo,Dominican Republic, in 1916, for which he was awarded his firstLegion of Merit. He commanded the Marine detachment on board theUSS Texas (BB-35) in the North Atlantic during World War I. In 1919, del Valle participated in the surrender of the GermanHigh Seas Fleet.[28]
Civil war broke out in Nicaragua during the first months of 1926, and upon the request of the Nicaraguan government, 3,000 U.S. Marines were sent to establish a neutral zone for the protection of American citizens. The American intervention was also known as theBanana Wars. Both Captain Pedro del Valle and Private Rafel Toro from Puerto Rico, participated in the Second Nicaraguan Campaign.[29]
In 1926, Captain del Valle served with theGendarmerie ofHaiti for three years and during that time, he also became active in the war againstAugusto Sandino inNicaragua. In 1927, Lieutenant Jaime Sabater, from San Juan, Puerto Rico, graduated from United States Naval Academy.[30]
Private Rafel Toro, fromHumacao, Puerto Rico, was part of the U.S. Marine Corps occupation force in Nicaragua, serving with the Guardia Nacional de Nicaragua. On July 25, 1927, Private Toro was on advance guard duty intoNueva Segovia. As he rode into town, he was attacked; returning fire, he was able to hold back the enemy until reinforcements arrived. He was mortally wounded in this action for which he was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross.[31]
In 1931, Brigadier GeneralRandolph C. Berkeley appointed Pedro del Valle to the "Landing Operations Text Board" in Quantico, the first organizational step taken by the Marines to develop a working doctrine foramphibious assault. In 1932, he wrote an essay titled "Ship-to-Shore in Amphibious Operations" which was published in theMarine Corps Gazette. In his essay, he stressed the importance of a coordinated amphibious assault and of an execution of an opposed landing, a principal which the Marine Corps were to put into practice in World War II.[32]
In 1933, Lieutenant James Rockwell, a native of San Juan, Puerto Rico, became the third Marine of Hispanic (Puerto Rican) descent to graduate from the USNA.[30]
PFC Richard I. Trujillo was serving aboard theBattleshipUSS Nevada (BB-36) when on December 7, 1941, theJapanese attackedPearl Harbor. TheNevada was among the ships which were in the harbor that day. As her gunners opened fire and her engineers got up steam, she was struck bytorpedoes and bombs from the Japanese attackers. Fifty men were killed and 109 wounded. Among those killed was Trujillo, who became the first Hispanic Marine casualty of World War II.[33]
After the United States officially entered the war, Hispanic Americans were among the many American citizens who joined the ranks of the United States Marine Corps as volunteers or through thedraft. Hispanic Americans in the Marines fought in every major battle in thePacific Theater of Operations. The battles ofGuadalcanal,Tarawa,Saipan,Cape Gloucester,Peleliu,Iwo Jima, andOkinawa saw fierce fighting between U.S. Marines and theImperial Japanese Army.[34] Among them PFC Guy Gabaldon who single-handed captured over 1,000 prisoners. It was during this conflict that four Hispanics would also participate as military commanders in the Marine Corps. The two highest-ranking Hispanics in the Marines were Lieutenant General Pedro Augusto del Valle, the first Hispanic to reach the grade of general in the Marines, and Colonel Jaime Sabater Sr.[32]
Colonel Pedro del Valle (1893–1978) was the commanding officer of the11th Marine Regiment (artillery). Upon the outbreak of World War II, del Valle led his regiment during the seizure and defense ofGuadalcanal, providing artillery support for the1st Marine Division. In theBattle of the Tenaru, the firepower provided by del Valle's artillery units killed many assaulting Japanese soldiers—almost to the last man—before they reached the Marine positions.[32] As a result of the outcome of the battle the Japanese commander, ColonelKiyonao Ichiki, committedseppuku shortly afterwards.[35] GeneralAlexander Vandegrift, impressed with del Valle's leadership, recommended his promotion and on October 1, 1942, del Valle became a brigadier general. Vandegrift retained del Valle as head of the 11th Marines, the only time that the 11th Marines has ever had a general as their commanding officer. In 1943, he served as commander of Marine Forces overseeing Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and the Russell and Florida Islands.[32] Sergeant Silvio Sanguedolce was awarded the Navy Cross for their actions in Guadalcanal.[36][37][38][39][40]
Colonel Jaime Sabater, Sr. (1904–1955), a United States Naval Academy graduate, Class of 1927, commanded the1st Battalion,9th Marines,3rd Marine Division during theBougainville amphibious operations. On November 1, 1943. The Allies intended to establish a beachhead around Cape Torokina, within which an airfield would be built. Allied forces did not plan, at that time, to try to capture the entire island of Bougainville from Japanese forces. An attempt by theJapanese Navy to attack the U.S. landing forces was defeated in theBattle of Empress Augusta Bay, between November 1 and November 2. A subsequent attempt by Japanese land forces to attack the Allied beachhead was defeated in theBattle of Koromokina Lagoon.[41]
When the Marines landed in Saipan in 1944, among the commanders was Lieutenant Colonel Chester J. Salazar. Salazar was the commanding officer of the 2d Battalion, 18th Marines. Salazar had in 1943 served as commanding officer of the same unit in theGilbert Islands which fought in theBattle of Tarawa.[42] During theBattle of Saipan, PFC Guy Gabaldon captured over a 1,000 prisoners.
PFC Guy Gabaldon (1926–2006) went to live with the parents of hisJapanese-American friend at the age of 12. At the outbreak of World War II, his adoptive family was placed in arelocation camp. Gabaldon joined the Marines when he was only 17 years old; he was a Private First Class (PFC) when his unit was engaged in theBattle of Saipan in 1944. Gabaldon, who acted as the Japanese interpreter for the Second Marines, working alone in front of the lines, entered enemy caves, pillboxes, buildings, and jungle brush, frequently in the face of hostile fire, and succeeded in not only obtaining vital military information, but in convincing well over 1,000 enemy soldiers and civilians to surrender. He was nominated for theMedal of Honor, but was awarded theSilver Star instead. His medal was later upgraded to theNavy Cross. He turned in more enemy soldiers than SergeantAlvin York, who was awarded the Medal of Honor during World War I for having captured 132 enemy German soldiers.[43] Gabaldon's actions onSaipan were later memorialized in the filmHell to Eternity, in which he was portrayed by actorJeffrey Hunter.[44]
On April 1, 1944, Brigadier General Pedro del Valle, as Commanding General of the Third Corps Artillery,III Marine Amphibious Corps, took part in theBattle of Guam and was awarded aGold Star in lieu of a secondLegion of Merit. The men under his command did such a good job with their heavy artillery that no one man could be singled out for commendation. Instead each man was given a letter of commendation by del Valle, which was carried in his record books.[32] Col. Jaime Sabater who had previously participated in the Bougainville campaign and who was now the executive officer of the 9th Marines in Guam was wounded in action on July 21, 1944, and awarded thePurple Heart.[45]
In late October 1944, Brigadier General Pedro del Valle succeeded Major GeneralWilliam Rupertus as Commanding General of the 1st Marine Division, being personally greeted to his new command byColonel Lewis Burwell "Chesty" Puller. At the time, the 1st Marine Division was training on the island ofPavuvu for theinvasion of Okinawa.
TheBattle of Iwo Jima was marked by some of the fiercest fighting of the Pacific campaign. The battle was the first American attack on the Japanese home islands and the Imperial soldiers defended their positions tenaciously. Of the 21,000 Japanese soldiers present at the beginning of the battle, over 20,000 were killed and only 216 takenprisoner.[46][47]
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On February 23, 1945, Antonio F. Moreno witnessed the first flag raising photographed bystaff sergeantLouis R. Lowery and the second flag raising photographed byJoe Rosenthal onMount Suribachi. On March 8, 1945, Moreno, a Marine medical corpsman assigned to the 2d Platoon, Company E, 27th Marine Regiment, tried to save the life of Lt.Jack Lummus after he (Lummus) had stepped on aland mine a few feet away from Moreno. Lt. Lummus, was a formerBaylor University andNew York Giantsfootball player who was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.[48][49] During this battle five men of Hispanic descent were awarded Navy Crosses. Two were members of the4th Marine Division, PFC's Lionel A. Canejo and Robert Manuel Ortiz and three of the5th Marine Division, Pvt. Salvador Vargas and Corporals Rondo G. Abel and Nicholas Hernandez.
On May 29, 1945, Brigadier General Pedro del Valle participated in one of the most important events that led to victory in Okinawa. After five weeks of fighting, del Valle ordered Company A of the1st Battalion 5th Marines to captureShuri Castle, a medieval fortress of the ancientRyukyuan kings. Seizure of Shuri Castle represented a morale blow for the Japanese and was a milestone in the Okinawa campaign.[32] The fighting in Okinawa would continue for 24 more days. Del Valle was awarded aDistinguished Service Medal for his leadership during the battle and the subsequent occupation and reorganization of Okinawa. PFC Harold Gonsalves of the6th Marine Division became the only Hispanic Marine in World War II to be awarded the Medal of Honor for gallantly giving his life for his fellow Marines. Two Hispanics who were also from the 6th Marine Division were awarded the Navy Cross, PFC Anthony E. Borgia of Company F 2/22 and Corporal Edward J. Ruiz of Headquarters 2/4.
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PFCHarold Gonsalves (1926–1945), had enlisted in theMarine Corps Reserve on May 27, 1943, and was called to active duty on June 17, 1943. He was assigned to the22nd Marines and participated in the assault, capture, and occupation of Engebi and Parry Islands, in the Marshall Islands. PFC Gonsalves accompanied the 22nd Marines toKwajalein, toGuadalcanal, back to Kwajalein andEniwetok, then up toGuam in July, where he took part inBattle of Guam.
After Guam, the regiment went back to Guadalcanal, where in November they were detached from the 22nd Marines and joined the15th Marines of the6th Marine Division. It was with that outfit that PFC Gonsalveslanded on Okinawa on April 1, 1945.
Two weeks later, on April 15, the 19-year-old Marine was a member of an eight-man forward observer team which was engaged in directing artillery fire in support of an attack by the infantry on Japanese positions onMotobu Peninsula. When it finally became necessary for the team to advance to the actual front lines, the officer in charge took PFC Gonsalves and one other man with him. PFC Gonsalves was acting Scout Sergeant of the team. He and the other Marine were to lay telephone lines for communication with the artillery battalion.
As the team advanced to the front, they were brought under heavy enemy rifle, grenade and mortar fire. Just as the three had reached the front lines, a Japanesegrenade landed among them. It was less than a foot from the two Marines with PFC Gonsalves. Without a moment's hesitation, he flung himself on the grenade, taking the full explosion into his own body. He gallantly gave his life for his fellow Marines and his country. The other two were not even touched by grenade fragments and they successfully completed their mission.[50]
In 1945, when Kwajalein of theMarshall Islands was secured by the U.S. forces, Sergeant Fernando Bernacett was among the Marines who were sent to guard various essential military installations. Bernacett, a combat veteran of theBattle of Midway, guarded the airport and prisoners of war, as well as theatomic bomb as it made its way for Japan.[51]
Prior to World War II, traditional Hispanic cultural values expected women to be homemakers, thus they rarely left the home to earn an income. As such, women were discouraged from joining the military. Only a small number of Hispanic women joined the military before World War II.[52] However, with the outbreak of World War II, cultural prohibitions began to change. With the creation of the Marine Corps Women's Reserve, women such as Corporal Maria (Torres) Maes could attend to certain administrative duties left open by the men who were reassigned to combat zones. After completing boot camp at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, she was sent to Quartermaster School and assigned to the Marine Corps Base atQuantico, Virginia.[52]
The American participation in the Asian theater came to an end on August 14, 1945 "V-J Day" (Victory over Japan Day) when theJapanese surrendered by signing theJapanese Instrument of Surrender. Many of the men and women who were discharged after the war returned to their civilian jobs or did as Antonio F. Moreno and made use of the educational benefits of theG.I. Bill.[49] Others continued in the military as career soldiers and went on to serve in theKorean War. General Pedro del Valle was ordered back toHeadquarters Marine Corps, where he was namedInspector General, a position which he held until January 1, 1948, when he retired with the rank oflieutenant general. Colonel Jaime Sabater was named commanding officer of the 3rd Marines, Fleet Marine Force, Western Pacific (formerly the 3rd Battalion, 4th Marines) from October 1, 1947, to April 1, 1948, inQingdao, China.[41]
Among the Hispanics who graduated from the USNA during the 1940s and who would serve in the Marines during the Korean War were Lieutenants Leon J. Hernandez (Class of '44), Baldomero Lopez (Class of '47) and George A. Bacas (Class of '48).[30]
The Korean War was an escalation of acivil war between two rival Korean regimes, each of which was supported by external powers, with each trying to topple the other through political and guerrilla tactics.[53] The conflict was expanded by the United States and the Soviet Union's involvement as part of the largerCold War. The main hostilities were during the period from June 25, 1950, until theKorean Armistice Agreement was signed on July 27, 1953.[54]
In July 1950, there were about 20,000 Hispanics in the armed forces. Over the next three years, nearly 148,000 Hispanic-Americans volunteered for or were drafted into military service. As in other conflicts, Hispanics fought as members of the Armed Forces, most Hispanic-Americans served in the Army and Marine Corps.[55] On September 15, 1950, the1st Marine Division, under the command of Major GeneralOliver P. Smith, led the first majorUnited Nations force strike in North Korean-occupied territory, with a surprise amphibious assault atInchon. On November 27, 1950, elements of the Chinese CommunistPeople's Liberation Army struck Marine positions in force. The Chinese and Marine Corps forces engaged in some of the fiercest fighting of theKorean War.[56] Hispanics in the 1st Marine Division distinguished themselves in combat even though they, and their comrades, lacked warm clothing during the cold and harsh winters.[57] Five Marines of Hispanic descent were posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor in the Korean War. All five were members of the 1st Marine Division: PFC Fernando Luis Garcia, PFC Edward Gomez, Staff Sergeant Ambrosio Guillen, First Lieutenant Baldomero Lopez and PFC Eugene Arnold Obregon. Two of the four Marine Navy Cross recipients were also members of the 1st Marine Division.[58]
First LieutenantBaldomero Lopez (1925–1950) enlisted in the Navy on July 8, 1943, and served until June 11, 1944, whereupon he was given a Fleet appointment to the United States Naval Academy. He graduated from the academy in 1947. On September 15, 1950, Lopez participated in theIncheon invasion in Korea as member of the1st Battalion,5th Marines, 1st Marine Division (Rein.).
Lopez engaged the enemy immediately after landing with the assault waves. He exposed himself to enemy fire in an attempt to throw a hand grenade into a pillbox whose fire was pinning down that sector of the beach. He was wounded by enemy gun fire and dropped the grenade. Unable to grasp the hand grenade firmly enough to hurl it, he chose to sacrifice himself rather than endanger the lives of his men. He cradled the grenade under him and absorbed the full impact of the explosion, thus saving the lives of his comrades. Lopez was nominated for the Medal of Honor.[59] Lopez however, was not the only Hispanic member of the 5th Marines, 1st Marine Division to be awarded the Medal of Honor. PFCEugene Arnold Obregon (1930–1950), who also participated in theInchon landing, was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions 11 days after Lopez gave his life. Obregon was killed in action while using his body to shield a wounded fellow Marine.[60]
On September 14, 1951, PFCEdward Gomez (1932–1951), an Ammunition Bearer in Company E,2nd Battalion,1st Marines,1st Marine Division, voluntarily moved down an abandoned trench to search for a new location for his machine gun and, when a hostile grenade landed between himself and his weapon, he shouted a warning to those around him as he grasped the activated charge in his hand. Determined to save his comrades, he unhesitatingly chose to sacrifice himself and, diving into a ditch with the deadly missile, absorbed the violence of the explosion in his own body.[61]
PFCFernando Luis Garcia (1929–1952), was assigned to Company I,3rd Battalion,5th Marines, of the 1st Marine division. On the night of his death, September 5, 1952, he was posted about one mile from the enemy lines. The Korean enemies were attacking withgrenades, bombs and other types ofartillery. Garcia was critically wounded, but he led his team to a supply point to gethand-grenades. An enemy grenade landed nearby, and Garcia covered with his body, sacrificing himself to save the lives of his fellow Marines. Garcia died instantly. Garcia, whose remains were never recovered, became the first Puerto Rican Medal of Honor recipient.[62][63]
On September 8, 1952, Private First Class Ramón Núñez-Juarez (1932–1952) who was assigned as an automatic rifleman to Company E of the2nd Battalion,1st Marines (2/1),1st Marine Division was manning Outpost Siberia with a squad of 15 men. A company-size Chinese Communist Force (CCF) struck the outpost and Nuñez-Juarez and the other the riflemen fought off the enemy for nearly half an hour before withdrawing from their position. Nuñez-Juarez, manning aBrowning Automatic Rifle (BAR), was able to halt the enemy's advance long enough for the remainder of his squad to escape. Nuñez-Juarez was struck by enemy gunfire and died as a result of his wounds. For the next several days the Marines tried to retake Outpost Siberia, but were unable to do so. Nuñez-Juarez was listed asMissing in Action and was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross for his heroic actions.[64][65]
Major George A. Bacas (1916–1961) was a Marine fighter pilot who flew anF4U Corsair during the war. He was awarded theDistinguished Flying Cross for his actions in combat. The Distinguished Flying Cross is a medal awarded to any officer or enlisted member of the United States armed forces who distinguishes himself or herself in combat in support of operations by "heroism or extraordinary achievement while participating in an aerial flight. He was also the recipient of theAir Medal with 6 Gold Stars.
Staff SergeantAmbrosio Guillen (1929–1953) was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor two days before the Armistice. He was responsible for turning an overwhelming enemy attack into a disorderly retreat. Guillen, who was assigned to Company F,2nd Battalion,7th Marines,1st Marine Division (Reinforced), participated in the defense of an outpost forward of the main line of resistance on July 25, 1953. He maneuvered his platoon over unfamiliar terrain in the face of hostile fire and placed his men in fighting positions. With his unit pinned down when the outpost was attacked under cover of darkness by an estimated force of two enemy battalions supported by mortar and artillery fire, he deliberately exposed himself to the heavy barrage and attacks to direct his men in defending their positions and personally supervise the treatment and evacuation of the wounded. Inspired by his leadership, the platoon quickly rallied and engaged the enemy force in fierce hand-to-hand combat. Although critically wounded during the course of the battle, Staff Sergeant Guillen refused medical aid and continued to direct his men throughout the remainder of the engagement until the enemy attack into a disorderly retreat.[66][unreliable source?]
Four of those who served in the Korean War were awarded the Navy Cross, they were Private First Class Adolfo Benavides, Private First Class Mario Cardillo, Private First Class Ramon Nunez-Juarez and Private First Class Enrique Romero-Nieves.[67]
| Name | Rank | Unit | Date of Action |
|---|---|---|---|
| Benavides, Adolfo | E2Private First Class | Co. D 1st MarDiv | 1952-10-6October 6, 1952 |
| Cardillo, Mario J. | E2Private First Class | Co. A 5th MarDiv | 1952-05-9May 9, 1952 |
| Nunez-Juarez, Ramon | E2Private First Class | Co. E 1st MarDiv | 1952-08-9August 9, 1952 |
| Romero-Nieves, Enrique | E2Private First Class | Co. A 7th MarDiv | 1952-10-26October 26, 1952 |
The Korean War also witnessed an increase in the recruitment of Hispanic women in the Marine Corps. Among them wasRose Franco who became the first Hispanic femaleChief Warrant Officer in theU.S. Marine Corps.
CWO3Rose Franco, who in 1965 was named Administrative Assistant to theSecretary of the Navy,Paul Henry Nitze by the administration ofPresident Lyndon B. Johnson, surprised her family by announcing that she was leaving college to join the United States Marine Corps upon the outbreak of theKorean War. On February 8, 1952, at the age of 20, Franco enlisted and was sent toCamp Lejeune inNorth Carolina where she underwent basic training. Upon graduation, she was sent to Camp Lejeune in North Carolina for advanced training. After finishing her advanced training, Rose was assigned to the duties of administrative supply assistant atCamp Pendleton inCalifornia. Franco retired from the Marine Corps in 1977.[52]
In the 1950s, three Hispanics who graduated from theUnited States Naval Academy became Marines and participated in the Vietnam War. They were Lieutenants John Gonzalez (later Colonel), Class of 1955, Ramiro Saenz (later Lieutenant Colonel), Class of 1959 and Angelo Fernandez (later Colonel), Class of 1959.[30]
The Marine Corps served an important role in theVietnam War by participating in such battles asDa Nang,Hue City, andKhe Sanh. Individuals from the USMC operated in the Northern I Corps Regions ofSouth Vietnam. While there, they were constantly engaged in aguerrilla war against theNational Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) and an intermittent conventional war against theNorth Vietnamese Army (NVA).[68] The U.S. government did not begin keeping separate statistics on Hispanics until 1979.[69] Therefore, the exact number of Hispanics who served in the Marine Corps during the Vietnam War era is unknown. The statistics that were kept by the Department of Defense, in accordance to the Vietnam War Statistics, included Hispanics among Caucasians. However, it is estimated that 170,000 Hispanics served in Vietnam and that 3,070 (5.2% of total) died there. This total includes those who served in the Marines.[70] Of the 57 Medals of Honor awarded to Marines for actions during the Vietnam War, six were awarded to Marines of Hispanic descent, of which five were posthumous awards. The six Marines were Sergeant Alfredo "Freddy" Gonzalez, Major Jay R. Vargas Jr., Lance Corporal Jose Francisco Jimenez, PFC Ralph E. Dias, Lance Corporal Emilio A. De La Garza and Lance Corporal Miguel Keith.[71] Of the 360 Navy Crosses awarded to the Marines, 19 were awarded to men of Hispanic descent.[72]
CorporalAngel Mendez (1946–1967) was among the many men who volunteered to join the Marine Corps right after graduating from high school. He was assigned to Company F,2nd Battalion,7th Marines,1st Marine Division on March 16, 1967, and conducting a search and destroy mission with his company when his company came under attack from aViet Cong battalion. Half of a platoon was pinned down under enemy fire, and Mendez volunteered to lead a squad to assist the pinned-down Marines in returning to friendly lines with their two dead and two seriously wounded. Mendez exposed himself and opened fire on the enemy. His platoon commander, Lieutenant Ronald Castille, was seriously wounded and he fell, unable to move. Mendez shielded him with his body as he applied a dressing to the wound, he picked up the lieutenant and started to carry him to friendly lines, which were more than seventy-five meters away. Mendez was hit in the shoulder, yet he chose to act as rear man and he continued to shield his lieutenant with his own body until he was mortally wounded. Mendez was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross and promoted to sergeant.[73]SergeantAlfredo "Freddy" Gonzalez (1946–1968) served two tours in Vietnam. He was the platoon commander of Company A,1st Battalion,1st Marines, United States Marine Corps. On February 4, 1968, Sgt. Gonzalez and his platoon engaged the Viet Cong, who were holed up in St. Joan of Arc Catholic Church inHue City, firing at the Americans with rockets and automatic weapons. Almost single-handedly, Sgt. Gonzalez neutralized the enemy with a barrage ofLAW rockets. When it became quiet, it was thought that all of the Viet Cong inside the church had been killed. However, one had survived, and he shot and killed Sgt. Gonzalez.[74]
On April 30, 1968, CaptainJay R. Vargas, who was the commander of Company G,2nd Battalion,4th Marines, 9th Marine Amphibious Brigade, was sent with his men to an area around the village ofDai Do where two other Marine companies were in a battle with a North Vietnamese Army regiment. Even though Company G hadn't slept for thirty-six hours, they went ashore at about one in the afternoon. The enemy attacked his men and had one of his platoons pinned down. Vargas went to rescue his platoon with a reserve platoon and was wounded by a grenade. He was able to take out three machine guns nests by himself before leading his men in hand-to-hand combat with the enemy soldiers in the nearby village.
He believed that he and his men had secured Dai Do and wasn't expecting a sudden massive counterattack by the NVA. Company G took cover in the village cemetery and the fight raged through the night. The next morning, the bodies of more than three hundred enemy soldiers lay near their positions. Vargas's battalion commander arrived on the scene and ordered a renewed assault on the village. He carried to safety a Marine whose arm had been severed, and when the soldier pleaded for his arm, Vargas went back and found it. When the battalion commander, fighting like any other rifleman, was shot in the back three times, Vargas dragged him a hundred yards to an evacuation point, firing at the enemy as he went with anAK-47 he had picked up on the battlefield. By the end of the third day of battle, the North Vietnamese retreated and Vargas finally allowed himself to be treated for a bullet wound in his side and shrapnel from mortar blasts.[75]
Lance CorporalJose Francisco Jimenez (1946–1969) was assigned to Company K,3rd Battalion,7th Marines, 1st Marine Division. On August 28, 1969, his unit came under heavy attack by North Vietnamese Army soldiers concealed inwell-camouflaged emplacements atQuang Nam Province. Jimenez personally destroyed several enemy personnel and silenced anantiaircraft weapon. He then maneuvered to within ten feet of hostile soldiers who were firingautomatic weapons from a trench and, in the face of vicious enemy fire, destroyed the position. As he moved to attack another enemy soldier, he was mortally wounded.[76]
Lance Corporal Jimenez was not the only Hispanic Marine from the 7th Marines, 1st Marine Division to be awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions inQuang Nam Province. Three months later, on November 12, 1969, Private First ClassRalph E. Dias (1950–1969) a Rifleman with Company D,1st Battalion,7th Marines,1st Marine Division, initiated an aggressive assault against an enemymachine gunbunker which was the principal source of hostile fire. He was wounded three times but, was able to crawl and throw a grenade which destroyed the enemy position before he was mortally wounded by another enemy round.[77]
On April 11, 1970, Lance CorporalEmilio A. De La Garza (1949–1970), while serving as a machine gunner on a squad size patrol with the 3rd Platoon of Company E,2nd Battalion,1st Marines,1st Marine Division, was mortally wounded approximately four miles south ofDa Nang by a grenade as he placed himself between the blast and two fellow Marines.[78]
A month later on May 8, 1970, Lance CorporalMiguel Keith (1951–1970) arifleman with the 1st Combined Action Group,III Marine Amphibious Force was seriously wounded when his platoon was under heavy attack from a numerically superior enemy in theQuang Ngai Province. Despite his wounds, he advanced on the enemy with machine gun fire, killing 3 of the enemy advancing on the command post and dispersing the others. He was severely wounded by a grenade during this charge. In spite of his wounds and loss of blood, he charged a group of 25 attackers, causing them to retreat for cover. He was mortally wounded by enemy fire. His actions contributed significantly to his platoon's success in routing the enemy.[79]
On April 23, 1975,President Gerald Ford gave a televised speech declaring an end to the Vietnam War and all U.S. aid. North Vietnamese tanks breached defenses on the outskirts ofSaigon and the song "White Christmas" was broadcast, as the final signal for U.S. withdrawal. Master Sergeant Juan J. Valdez was the noncommissioned officer in charge of the Marine security guard detachment stationed at theUS Embassy, Saigon. He had previously served from 1965 to 1967 with Company B, 3d Amphibian Tractor Battalion, attached to 2d Bn, Fourth Marine Regiment and was now on his second tour. On April 30, 1975, Valdez was one of the last U.S. serviceman to leave South Vietnam, boarding thelast helicopter out of the U.S. Embassy.[80][81]
The following nineteen Marines of Hispanic descent in the table were awarded the Navy Cross for their actions in Vietnam.[72]
| Name | Rank | Unit | Date of Action |
|---|---|---|---|
| Arquero, Elpidio A. | E6Staff Sergeant | Battalion Landing Team 13 | 1967-05-10May 10, 1967 |
| Cisneros, Roy | E4Corporal | B Co. 1/3 3rd MarDiv | 1968-09-11September 11, 1968 |
| Covella, Joseph F. | E7Gunnery Sergeant | Advisor (ARVN) | 1966-01-03January 3, 1966 |
| Castillo, William | E2Private First Class | E Co. 2/4 3rd MarDiv | 1969-02-25February 25, 1969 |
| Estrada, Manuel A. | E3Lance Corporal | A/3rd Recon 3rd MarDiv | 1968-08-25August 25, 1968 |
| Gomez, Ernesto L | E4Corporal | 1968-01-25January 25, 1968 | |
| Gonzales, Daniel G. | E4Corporal | B Co. 1/7 1st MarDiv | 1969-06-07June 7, 1969 |
| Guerra, Victor J. | E6Staff Sergeant | L Co. 3/1 1st MarDiv | 1969-10-27October 27, 1969 |
| Herrera, Felipe L | E4Corporal | A/1st Recon 1st MarDiv | 1968-09-20September 20, 1968 |
| La Porte, Alfred P., Jr. | E5Sergeant | H Co. 2/4 3rd MarDiv | 1969-02-25February 25, 1969 |
| Lazaro, Lawrence J. | E4Corporal | E Co. 2/7 1st MarDiv | 1966-09-19September 19, 1966 |
| Lopez, Jose G. | E5Sergeant | 1967-10-02September 2, 1967 | |
| Lopez, Steven D. | E4Corporal | A/3rd Recon 3rd MarDiv | 1967-05-10May 10, 1967 |
| Mendez, Angel | E5Sergeant | F Co. 2/7 1st MarDiv | 1967-03-16March 16, 1967 |
| Rivera, Jose L. | E3Lance Corporal | L Co. 3/5 1st MarDiv | 1969-03-26March 26, 1969 |
| Rodrigues, Joe G., Jr. | E5Sergeant | L Co. 3/4 3rd MarDiv | 1969-03-03March 3, 1969 |
| Soliz, Thomas | E4Corporal | A/1ATB 3rd MarDiv | 1967-09-06September 6, 1967 |
| Sotomayor, Miguel A. | E4Corporal | F Co. 2/9 3rd MarDiv | 1967-07-29July 7, 1967 |
| Vasquez, Jesus R. | E5Sergeant | 1st FSR (Force Log. Comm.) | 1968-01-30January 30, 1968 |
Women in the Marine Corps did not participate in active combat duty, most were assigned to administrative duties. In the case of Staff Sergeant Norma Alvarado ofEl Campo, Texas, who enlisted in the Marine Corps in 1973, she spent three years as a drill instructor and depot inspector at the Women Recruit Training Command atParris Island,South Carolina.[52]
Joseph V. Medina attended theUnited States Naval Academy and was commissioned aSecond Lieutenant upon his graduation in 1976.[30]
In 1982, at the request of theLebanese government, the United States and France established a peacekeeping force betweenMuslims andChristians inBeirut, Lebanon. The internationalpeacekeeping forces, however were viewed as enemies and were frequently attacked with artillery and mortar. On October 23, 1983, a large truck loaded with 2,500 pounds ofTNT crashed through the main gate of the U.S. Marine Headquarters in Beirut, Lebanon killing 241 servicemen (mostly made up of U.S. Marines) and wounding 81. Marines of Hispanic descent accounted for 16 of the deaths.[82] The attack remains the deadliest single attack onAmericans overseas since World War II.[83] The Marines were moved offshore where they could not be targeted. On February 7, 1984, PresidentRonald Reagan ordered the Marines to begin withdrawal from Lebanon.
| Name | Rank | Place of birth |
|---|---|---|
| Caesar, Johnnie D. | E3Lance Corporal | El Campo, Texas |
| Comas, Juan M. | E2Private First Class | Hialeah, Florida |
| Garcia, Randall J. | E3Lance Corporal | Modesto, California |
| Garcia, Ronald J. | E3Lance Corporal | Jacksonville, North Carolina |
| Hernandez, Jr., Matilde | E7Gunnery Sergeant | Austin, Texas |
| Melendez, Louis | E2Private First Class | Puerto Rico |
| Munoz, Alex | E4Corporal | Bloomfield, New Mexico |
| Nava, Luis A. | E3Lance Corporal | Gardena, California |
| Ortega, Alexander | E6Staff Sergeant | Rochester, New York |
| Ortiz, Richard C. | CWO3Chief Warrant Officer | New York City, New York |
| Pomales Torres, Rafael | E5Sergeant | Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |
| Rodriquez, Juan | E5Sergeant | Miami, Florida |
| Rotondo, Louis | E3Lance Corporal | Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |
| San Pedro, Guillermo | E3Lance Corporal | Hialeah, Florida |
| Silvia, James F. | E3Lance Corporal | Middletown, Rhode Island |
| Valle, Pedro J. | E4Corporal | San Juan, Puerto Rico |
On August 2, 1990,Saddam Hussein sent an invading force of Iraqi troops intoKuwait. According to the United States government Hussein's forces would continue south intoSaudi Arabia's oil fields. The United States military deployment to Saudi Arabia,Operation Desert Shield, grew rapidly to become the largest American deployment since the Vietnam War.[84]
On January 22, 1991, Captain Manuel Rivera Jr., a Marine aviator, became the first Hispanic soldier to be killed in Operation Desert Shield. Rivera was killed during a support mission over thePersian Gulf when hisAV-8B Harrier smashed into theOmani coastline while approaching the deck of the amphibious assault shipUSS Nassau (LHA-4) for a landing.[85]
In the 1950s, Rivera's parents moved fromPuerto Rico to the mainland United States in search of opportunities. They settled down in theSouth Bronx neighborhood ofNew York City, where Rivera was born and rented a low income apartment in a public housing project. At a young age Rivera became interested in obtaining a good education and in becoming a pilot. He was a good student and as a young man joined theBoy Scouts, eventually becoming anEagle Scout.[86] After finishing his primary education, he enrolled and attended Aviation High School pursuing his ambition of becoming a pilot. After graduating from high school, Rivera attendedDowling College in Long Island and earned his bachelor's degree.[86]
He joined theUnited States Marine Corps in 1981, following in the footsteps of his father, Manuel Rivera Sr., who was a Marine during theVietnam War. He was sent toMarine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island in South Carolina, where he underwent basic training. From there he was sent to the Marine CorpsOfficer Candidate School atMarine Corps Base Quantico in Virginia. He graduated as a 2nd Lieutenant and continued his training at the Naval Aviation Flight Training School where he earned his pilot "wings."[86][87]
On January 30, 1991, theUnited States House of Representatives paid tribute to Capt. Manuel Rivera and on May 9, 1991, the Hon.James H. Scheuer of the House of Representatives also paid tribute to the fallen Marine. P.S. 279 (Public School 279) was renamed P.S. 279 Capt. Manuel Rivera Jr. honoring his memory. Also, a street, park and public housing project were named after him in theSouth Bronx.[88] In March 1995, the United States Marines donated a McDonnell-Douglas TA-4F, a Marine Corps fighter jet, to Aviation High School in memory of Rivera Jr.. The students at the school will use the jet to learn inspection and maintenance procedures.[89] His name was engraved in "El Monumento de la Recordación" (Monument of Remembrance), dedicated to Puerto Rico's fallen military members and situated in front of the Capitol Building in San Juan, Puerto Rico, and unveiled by Puerto Rico Senate PresidentKenneth McClintock and PR National Guard Adjutant General Col.David Carrión Baralt onMemorial Day, 2007.
Major Michael J. Aguilar, an experiencedUH-1E "Huey" andAH-1 "Super Cobra" attack helicopter pilot, volunteered to fly combat missions in the desert upon Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. He immediately joined Marine Aircraft Group 70, the 7th Marine Expeditionary Brigade's aviation combat element. During Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, he was executive officer ofMarine Aircraft Group 16 operating out ofAl Jubayl, Saudi Arabia, and later up north near Kuwait.[90] Colonel Christopher Cortez was the commanding officer of 1st Bn, 5th Marines, his unit was also deployed with 7th Marine Expeditionary Brigade to Saudi Arabia. He sequentially served with the 7th Marines and 3rd Marines during Operation Desert Shield and then with Task Force Ripper (7th Marines) during Operation Desert Storm.[91] Both men were to become generals in the Marines.
Also, among those who participated in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm were United States Naval Academy graduates and future astronauts,Christopher J. "Gus" Loria, Class of 83' andGeorge David Zamka, Class of 84'. They flew combat missions in support of allied operations during both operations. Loria flew 42 and Zamka flew 66 combat missions.[92][93]
Operation Restore Hope was an Americanmilitary operation with the support of theUnited Nations that was formed to deliverhumanitarian aid and restore order to theNortheast African nation ofSomalia, which was suffering from a severefamine,anarchy, and domination by a number ofwarlords following the collapse ofSiad Barre'sMarxist government and the outbreak of theSomalian Civil War. On January 30, 1993, Private First Class Domingo Arroyo, Jr. (1979–1993), a Marine from Puerto Rico, became the first of three Marines of Hispanic descent to die in what is known as theBattle of Mogadishu from a total of 45 American soldiers killed during the operation. The other two were Sergeant Lorenzo Ruiz and Lance Corporal Jesus Perez.[94] Ruiz was ambushed inMogadishu, the capital of Somalia, by Somali warlords.[95] Perez was killed in a training accident involving an 81mm mortar.
Colonel Leonardo G. Hernández (USMC, Retired) entered the Marine Corps in 1973 as an infantry officer and served thirty-one years on active duty which included combat in Somalia,El Salvador andBosnia.[96]
The past 20 years have witnessed dramatic increases in the percentage of Latinos (of both sexes) among active duty enlisted personnel. Nearly 15 percent of U.S. Marine Corps enlisted personnel were Hispanic. The various recruitment efforts do have critics, both within and outside the Hispanic community, particularly during this time of war and a growing number of reported Hispanic casualties.[17]
In the military campaigns ofAfghanistan andIraq, in what the United States and its allies refer to as theWar on Terrorism. SergeantRafael Peralta is among those who have perished.
During theIraq War, Sgt. Rafael Peralta (1979–2004) was assigned to 1st Battalion, 3rd Marine Regiment, 3rd Marine Division, III Marine Expeditionary Force. On November 15, 2004, Peralta and his team were ordered to clear houses in theOperation Phantom Fury. Peralta led his team through a series of house clearings before charging into the fourth house. He found two rooms empty on the ground floor. Peralta opened a third door and was hit multiple times withAK-47 fire, leaving him severely wounded. He dropped to the floor and moved aside in order to allow the Marines behind him to return fire.
The insurgents responded by throwing agrenade at the Marines. The two Marines with Sgt. Peralta tried to get out of the room but could not. Sgt. Peralta was still conscious on the floor and despite his wounds was able to reach for the grenade and pull it under his body absorbing the majority of the lethal blast andshrapnel which killed him instantly, but saved the lives of his fellow marines.
Sgt. Peralta was under consideration to receive the Medal of Honor.[97] but, was awarded the Navy Cross instead.Secretary of DefenseRobert Gates rejected the Marine Corps' recommendation, concluding that his appointed panel unanimously confirmed that his actions did not meet the standard of "without any possibility of error or doubt". The central argument posed relates to whether the already mortally wounded Peralta could have intentionally reached for a grenade, shielding his fellow Marines from the blast.[98]
Six Marines of Hispanic descent have been awarded theNavy Cross, they are:[99]
| Name | Rank | Unit | Date of Action |
|---|---|---|---|
| Esquibel, Dominic | E4Corporal | 1st Bn, 8th Marines, 2d Marine Div. | 2004-11-25November 25, 2004 |
| Martinez, Marco A. | E4Corporal | Co G, 2d Bn, 5th Marines | 2003-04-12April 12, 2003 |
| Montoya, Scott C. | E5Sergeant | Scout Sniper Platoon, 2d Bn., 23d Marines | 2003-04-08April 8, 2003 |
| Peralta, Rafael | E5Sergeant | 1st Battalion, 3rd Marine Regiment, 3rd Marine Division, III Marine Expeditionary Force | 2004-11-15 November 15, 2004 |
| Perez, Joseph B. | E3Lance Corporal | Co I, 3d Bn, 5th Marines | 2003-04-04April 4, 2003 |
| Rodriguez Chavez, Juan | E4Staff Sergeant | Marine Embedded Training Team 2-8 | 2004-11-25September 8, 2009 |
On June 10, 2004, duringOperation Iraqi Freedom Brigadier General Joseph V. Medina became the first Marine general ever assigned commander of naval ships. Medina oversaw the manning and equipping of ESG-3. From his flagship, the USSBelleau Wood, he then led the Belleau Wood Strike Group (BWDESG) through a 6-month deployment in support of where he was assigned as Commander Task Force 58.[100]
Hispanic women are now more highly represented among enlisted women in the Marine Corps than the other services.[101] Hispanic women are reaching the top echelons of the Marine Corps both in the enlistment and officer ranks. On August 13, 2004, MGySgt. Abigail D. Olmos became the first female Master Gunnery Sergeant in the history of the Marine Corps.[102] and on August 2, 2006, Brigadier GeneralAngela Salinas, made history when she became the first Hispanic woman to obtain a general rank in the Marines.[103] To date servicewomen are still restricted from serving in the following positions:Infantry regiments,artillery battalions, allarmored units, combat engineer battalions, reconnaissance units, riverine assault craft units,low altitude air defense units, and fleetanti-terrorism security teams.[104] InOperation Iraqi Freedom female Marines have played a prominent role guarding checkpoints and searching Iraqi women and children. This in turn has exposed many of them to dangerous situations which in some cases could cost them their lives.[105] Two Hispanic female Marines died in said conflict: Lance Corporal Juana Navarro, assigned to 9th Engineer Support Battalion, 3rd Marine Logistics Group, III Marine Expeditionary Force,[106] and Corporal Ramona M. Valdez.
CorporalRamona M. Valdez (1984–2005) was assigned to Headquarters Battalion, 2nd Marine Division, II Marine Expeditionary Force. Valdez, whose mother immigrated from theDominican Republic, was a communications specialist. Valdez's most significant work was with Division's Counter Improvised Explosive Device Working Group. The success of the tests conducted by CIEDWG was in a large part attributed to Valdez's knowledge of single-channel radios.[107]
Valdez, who was stationed atCamp Lejeune, North Carolina, was deployed with her unit to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. Her convoy was on its way back to Camp Fallujah when a suicide bomber drove his car into the convoy, causing an explosion that killed Valdez, two other women, and three men, and severely burned seven other women. She was serving with the Female Search Force when she was killed.[107] The Marine Corps honored her memory by naming the II MEF Communications Training Center in Camp Lejeune the Valdez Training Facility.[108]
Since theAmerican Revolution, when they fought alongside Spanish GeneralBernardo De Galvez to the modern day conflict in Iraq, Hispanic immigrants have played an important role in the military of the United States.[109][110]
On July 3, 2002, PresidentGeorge W. Bush issued an order to speed up the process of citizenship for immigrants serving in the nation's military services. Immigrant service members can now qualify for citizenship after serving honorably for one year in the armed forces or for serving on active duty during an authorized period of conflict, among other qualifications listed under theImmigration and Nationality Act, Section 328.[111]One of the privileges of U.S. citizenship is the opportunity to become a commissioned officer in the Marine Corps. When there is a draft, a non-citizen can be drafted as a resident alien, or can join in the ranks as a foreigner, but cannot be an officer without U.S. citizenship.[112][113]Lance Corporal Jose Vasquez, a 28-year-old Marine who was born nearMonterrey, Mexico, came to the United States as a three-month-old baby, growing up inHouston, Texas. He had permanent resident status, but not citizenship. Vasquez said he needed citizenship to land a job as an aviation electrician.[114]
Mexicans are the largest immigrant group in the Marine Corps. As of 2005, 59 immigrant casualties have been grantedposthumous citizenship.[115] Among those who have been granted posthumous citizenship are three foreign-born Hispanic Marines, Lance Corporal Jesus Suarez del Solar, Corporal Jose Angel Garibay and Lance Corporal Jose Antonio Gutierrez.[116]
On March 21, 2003, Lance Corporal José Antonio Gutierrez (1981–2003), member of the 2nd Battalion, 1st Marines was killed by enemy fire while trying to secure Umm Qasr, a port vital for humanitarian aid.
Gutierrez was born inGuatemala. His mother died when he was three. Five years later his father was dead. He left school to work a series of odd jobs to buy food for himself and his sister, Engracia. He learned about the U.S. from an American aid worker at a shelter. Gutierrez decided to head for America by stowing away on freight trains. He got stuck in Mexico for a couple of years, crossing into California when he was 14. He slept on park benches and got food from a shelter.
In 2000, he came to live with Nora and Marcelo Mosquera (themselves immigrants fromCosta Rica andEcuador). A few months after September, 11, he surprised everyone by announcing he'd joined the Marines. On March 21, 2003, Gutierrez, who come to the United States illegally as a teenager, became one of the first U.S. servicemembers to die in Iraq. He was awarded his American citizenship posthumously.[117] Lance Cpl. José Antonio Gutiérrez is the subject of the 2006 nonfiction film "The Short Life of José Antonio Gutierrez"; Directed by Heidi Specogna.[118]
Hispanics comprise 18 percent of enlisted Marines today up from 15 percent when the Iraq war began.[5]
The number of Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps over-represent their percentage of the population. Today the United States Department of Defense faces a nationwide problem in recruiting men for the all volunteerArmed Forces because of the war in Iraq and Afghanistan, yet Hispanic recruiting numbers have not decreased into that service.[96]The United States Marine Corps has implemented an aggressive recruitment programs directed towards this group. One of those programs involves advertising publications and magazines with the principal aim to attract those who speak Spanish. The strategy of Marine Corps Recruiting Command in advertising is to continue to develop a very strong and positive image of the Marine Corps. The Marine Corps' has also been successful in marketing by using Hispanic recruiters in areas mostly populated by Hispanics.[6] Among the reasons which have led the Marine Corps to target Hispanics with aggressive recruitment programs are the following:[17]
Brigadier General Joseph V. Medina has been quoted as saying:[119]
"We understand the importance of diversity in the Marine Corps", said the senior ranking Hispanic in the Marine Corps. "That's why the Marine Corps is so strong... we are able to embrace all different elements of society to make the Corps a strong organization."[120]
On September 17, 1968, PresidentLyndon B. Johnson designated a week in mid-September as National Hispanic Heritage Week. In 1988, PresidentRonald Reagan extended that week to a month-long observance. The National Hispanic Heritage Month is a time for Americans to educate themselves about the influences Hispanic culture has had on society.[121] The Marine Corps has realized that the fastest growing group in both the United States and the Marines are Hispanics, and have joined the rest of the United States in the celebration of the contributions which Hispanics in the United States Marines Corps have made to that military institution by celebratingNational Hispanic Heritage Month from September 15 through October 15.[122]
Hispanics have been more highly represented among enlisted personnel in the Marine Corps than in the other services.[17] On June 27, 2003, Sergeant MajorJohn L. Estrada,[123] originally from the nation ofTrinidad and Tobago, became the 15thsergeant major of theUnited States Marine Corps and the first person of Hispanic descent promoted to that rank. Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps is a uniquenon-commissioned rank in theUnited States Marine Corps. The holder of this rank and post is the senior enlisted member of the Marine Corps. Estrada enlisted on September 19, 1973, and has been assigned to various units and positions during the years which he served. From December 2001 to May 2003, Estrada served as the Sergeant Major,3rd Marine Aircraft Wing. During this assignment, he was forward deployed and participated inOperation Southern Watch andOperation Iraqi Freedom. His personal awards include theBronze Star, theMeritorious Service Medal with three gold stars, the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal, the Joint Service Achievement Medal, and the Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal. On April 25, 2007, SgtMaj Estrada stepped down from his post as Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps.[124]
Aside from Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps,master gunnery sergeant (MGySgt) and sergeant major are the highest enlisted ranks in the Marine Corps; however, there are far fewer master gunnery sergeants than sergeants major.[125] One of the major differences between the two E-9 ranks is that master gunnery sergeants retain theirMilitary Occupational Specialty (MOS), while sergeants major are given a new MOS to reflect their general command focus. This reinforces the master gunnery sergeant's role as a provider of technical military leadership.[126]
According to the Air War College, Air University, Hispanics had been underrepresented in the all-volunteer armed forces, especially among officers. Although Hispanics made up 18% of the total Marine population, they made up 5.5% of the officers corps. Hispanics have been underrepresented in the all-volunteer armed forces, especially among officers.[133] This began to change, as increasing numbers of Hispanics entered the military.[134] The Marine Corps, realizing its shortage of Hispanics in the officer ranks, developed a program to grow its own and sends young enlisted Marines to college while on active duty to obtain a degree and a commission.[96] Prior to 2000, two Marines of Hispanic descent reached the ranks of brigadier general and above. Since then, seven Hispanics have been promoted to the rank of brigadier general and above. One of the seven, Joseph V. Medina, was a graduate of the United States Naval Academy. The other six obtained their commissions after enlisting in the Marines upon receiving their college degrees.
Thirteen Marines of Hispanic descent have been awarded the Medal of Honor – the highest military decoration of the United States:
This along with the *, indicates that the Medal of Honor was awarded posthumously
 Marines of Hispanic descent recipients of the Medal of Honor | ||||
| Boxer Rebellion | ||||
| Rank & Name | Unit | Place and Date of action | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
Legation Guards (Marines) | Peking, China June, 28 to August 17, 1900 | |||
| World War II | ||||
| Rank & Name | Unit | Place and Date of action | ||
4th Battalion, 15th Marines 6th Marine Division | Ryūkyū Chain, Okinawa April 15, 1945 | |||
| Korean War | ||||
| Rank & Name | Unit | Place and Date of action | ||
Company I 3rd Battalion, 5th Marines 1st Marine Division | Korea September 5, 1952 | |||
Company E 2nd Battalion, 1st Marines 1st Marine Division | Kajon-ni, Korea September 14, 1951 | |||
Company F 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines 1st Marine Division | Songuch-on, Korea July 25, 1953 | |||
Company A 1st Battalion, 5th Marines 1st Marine Division | Inchon Landing, Korea September 15, 1950 | |||
Company G 3rd Battalion, 5th Marines 1st Marine Division | Battle of Seoul September 26, 1950 | |||
| Vietnam War | ||||
| Rank & Name | Unit | Place and Date of action | ||
Company E 2nd Battalion, 1st Marines | Da Nang April 11, 1970 | |||
1st Battalion, 7th Marines | Quang Nam Province November 12, 1969 | |||
Company A 1st Battalion, 1st Marines | Hue City February 4, 1968 | |||
Company K 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines 1st Marine Division | Quang Nam Province August 28, 1969 | |||
III Marine Amphibious Force | Quang Ngai Province May 8, 1970 | |||
Company G 2nd Battalion, 4th Marines 9th Marine Amphibious Brigade | Dai Do April, 30 to May 2, 1968 | |||
The United States Naval Academy is an institution inAnnapolis, Maryland, for the undergraduate education of officers of theUnited States Navy and United States Marine Corps.[141] The following is a list of Hispanic alumni of the USNA who served in the Marine Corps.[142]
| Name | Class | Highest rank reached |
|---|---|---|
| Pedro Augusto del Valle | 1915 | O9Lieutenant General |
| Jaime Sabater | 1927 | O6Colonel |
| James Rockwell | 1933 | O21st Lieutenant |
| Leon J. Hernandez | 1944 | O6Colonel |
| Baldomero Lopez | 1947 | O21st Lieutenant |
| George A. Bacas | 1948 | O4Major |
| John Gonzalez | 1955 | O6Colonel |
| Ramiro Saenz | 1959 | O5Lieutenant Colonel |
| Angelo Fernandez | 1959 | O6Colonel |
| Joseph V. Medina | 1979 | O7Brigadier General |
| Christopher J. "Gus" Loria | 1983 | O5Lieutenant Colonel |
| George David Zamka | 1984 | O6Colonel |
The following is a list of Hispanics who served in the United States Marine Corps and have gained fame through previous or subsequent endeavors or successes:
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