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Jainism andHinduism are also two ancient Indian religions. There are some similarities and differences between the two religions.[1] Temples, gods, rituals, fasts and other religious components of Jainism are different from those of Hinduism.[2]
"Jain" is derived from the wordJina, referring to a human being who has conquered all inner passions (like anger, attachment, greed and pride) and possesseskevala jnana (pure infinite knowledge). Followers of the path shown by the Jinas are called Jains.[3][4] Followers of Vedas who worshipBrahman,Vishnu orShiva and other vedic deities are called Hindus.[5]
Jainism and Hinduism have many similar characteristic features, including the concepts ofsamsara,karma andmoksha. However, they differ over the precise nature and meaning of these concepts. The doctrine Nyaya-Vaisheshika and samkhya school had minor similarities with Jain philosophy. The Jain doctrine teaches atomism which is also adopted in the Vaisheshika system and atheism which is found in Samkhya.[6] Within the doctrine of Jainism, there exist many metaphysical concepts which are not known in Hinduism, some of which aredharma and Adharma tattva (which are seen as substances within the Jain metaphysical system),Gunasthanas andLesyas.[6] The epistemological concepts ofAnekantavada and Syadvada are not found in the Hindu system. There were, in the past, probable attempts made to merge the concepts of Hindu gods and the Tirthankara of Jainism. The cosmography of Hindus resembles that of the Jains and there are similar names of heavenly gods within these systems.[7]
In theUpanishads, there also occur the first statements of the view, dominant in Jainist teachings and elsewhere, that rebirth is undesirable and that it is possible by controlling or stopping one's actions to put an end to it and attain a state of deliverance (moksha) which lies beyond action.[8]
In Hinduism,moksha means merging of soul with universal soul or eternal being and escaping the cycle of births and deaths; in Jainism, it is blissful existence with infinite knowledge. In Vedic philosophy, salvation is giving up the sense of being a doer and realizing Self to be the same as Universe and God.[9] In Jainism, salvation can be achieved only through self-effort and is considered to be the right of human beings.[10]
In Jainism, one definite path to attain liberation (moksha) is prescribed. The prescribed threefold path consists of thethree jewels of Jainism (Right perception, Right knowledge, Right conduct). In Hinduism, one definite path to salvation is not known.[10]
According toJain cosmology, the primary structure of the universe is eternal: it is neither created nor can it be destroyed, but undergoes continuous natural transformations within. In Hinduism,Brahman is the unchanging ultimate reality and the single binding unity behind diversity in all that exists in the universe.
Karma is an invisible force in Hinduism, whereas in Jainism it is a form of particulate matter which can adhere to the soul.[10] As perJainism, the consequence of karma occurs by naturalnirjara of karma particles from the soul. Hindus rejected this concept and believe that the God or the creator of this universe iskarmaphaldata, and rewards the fruits of past actions to each individual.[11]
In Hinduism, Gods are worshiped in several ways and for several reasons such as knowledge, peace, wisdom, health, and it also believed to be one's duty to pray god as God is considered as our maker (as we originated from them and we are staying in them and at last will merge with them), for moksha, and are also offered food as a respect, etc.[10][12] In Jainism, enlightened human perfect masters orsiddhas represent the true goal of all human beings,[13] and their qualities are worshiped by the Jains.[14]
Jains and Hindus have opinion that violence in self-defence can be justified,[15] and they agree that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty.[16] Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence, there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers.[17]
The religion of Jains included women in their fourfoldsangha; the religious order of Jain laymen, laywomen, monks and nuns.[18] There was a disagreement between early Hinduism, and ascetic movements such as Jainism with the scriptural access to women.[18] However, the early svetambara scriptures prevented pregnant women, young women or those who have a small child, to enter the ranks of nun.[19] Regardless, the number of nuns given in those texts were always double the number of monks.Parshvanatha andMahavira, the two historical tirthankaras, had large numbers of female devotees and ascetics.[19] Mahavira and other Jain monks are credited with raising thestatus of women.[20]
Hindus do not accept any Jain text and Jains do not recognize any Hindu scripture.[21][22]
The scriptures known asVedas are regarded by Hindus as one of the foundations ofHinduism. According toManusmriti those who rejected the Vedas as the prime source of religious knowledge were labeled "nāstika".[23] As a consequence, Jainism and Buddhism were categorized asnāstikadarśana.[23]
The orthodox schools of Hinduism, such asVedanta,Mimamsa andSamkhya, claim theSruti do not have any author and hence are supreme to other religious scriptures. This position was countered by Jains who said that saying Vedas are authorless was equivalent to saying that anonymous poems are written by nobody.Jain scriptures, on the contrary, were believed by them to be of human origin, brought through omniscient teachers, and hence claimed greater worth.[24] According to Jains, the origin of Vedas lies withMarichi, the son ofBharata Chakravarti, who was the son of the first Tirthankara Rishabha. Jains maintain that these scriptures were later modified.[25][7] Jains pointed that Hindus do not know their own scriptures since they were unaware of the names of tirthankaras present in Vedas.[24]
Jains had a long-standing debate withMimamsa school of Hinduism.Kumarila Bhatta, a proponent of Mimamsa school, argued that the Vedas are the source of all knowledge and it is through them that humans can differentiate between right and wrong. Jain monks, such asHaribhadra, held that humans are already in possession of all the knowledge, which only needs to be illuminated or uncovered in order to gain the status of omniscience.[26]
The practice of Vedic animal sacrifices was opposed by Jains.[21]Acharya Hemchandra, a Jain monk, cites passages fromManusmriti, one of the law book of Hindus, to demonstrate how, in light of false scriptures, Hindus have resorted to violence.Akalanka, another Jain monk, sarcastically said that if killing can result in enlightenment, one should become a hunter or fisherman.[24]
The rejection of Jain epics and scriptures were dominant in Hinduism since very early times.[21] On the other hand, central Hindu scriptures and epics like Vedas, Mahabharata and Ramayana are categorized as unreliable scriptures in Nandi-sutra,[27][verification needed][28] one of the svetambara's canonical literature. Later, Jains adapted various Hindu epics in accordance with their own system.[29][7] There were disputes between Jains and Hindus in form of these epics.[30]
Within the doctrine of Jainism, thetirthankara holds the highest status. Hemachandra Acharya says that aJindeva is the one who has conquered his internal desires and passions. This requirement, according to him, was fulfilled only by the tirthankara. Hence their path for spiritual upliftment and salvation is rejected by theJains.
Some personages mentioned in the Vedas and Jain scriptures are identified to be the same. There is mention ofRishabha, identified with the first tirthankara,Rishabhanatha, in theRigveda and theVishnu Purana. The Rigveda, X. 12. 166 states:[31]
O Rudra-like Divinity ! do thou produce amongst us, of high descent, a Great God, like Rishabha Deva, by becoming Arhan, which is the epithet of the first World Teacher; let Him become the destroyer of the enemies !
The Vishnu Purana also names Rishabha:
In theSkanda Purana (chapter 37) it is stated that "Rishabha was the son ofNabhiraja, and Rishabha had a son named Bharata, and after the name of this Bharata, this country is known as Bharata-varsha."[32]
In the Brahmottara-candam section of theBrahma Purana, the narrator Suta describes many matters relating to Shaivism and in the 16th portion, there is a story about Bhadrabahu receiving instructions in a mantra from ayogi named Rishabha.[33]
TheLinga Purana states that in everyKali Yuga,Shiva incarnates on earth, and that in one Kali Yuga he was aYogeshvara (one of his 28 incarnations) named Rishabha.[34]
In theShiva Purana, in order to assist thedevas against the tyranny of theTripurasura brothers,Vishnu sought to convert theasuras from their devotion toShiva and Vedic practices to beliefs that are implied to be Jainism.[35] He created a man calledArihat, instructing him to use hismaya (illusory power) to create a deceptive sacred scripture that opposes theshruti andsmriti texts, as well as thevarna and theashrama systems. The man and his followers initiated the Tripurasura brothers into their religion, abandoning the worship of the Hindu gods and traditional rites. This offers Shiva the pretext of destroying thethree cities of the asuras, who had previously worshipped him, and restore order.[36]
Jainism is considered to be distinct and separate from Vedic religion and originated fromSramana orArahata tradition.[37]
Jains and Hindus have coexisted inthe Indian subcontinent since at least the second century BCE.[38][better source needed]
Competition between Jains and VedicBrahmins, between Jains and HinduShaivas, is a frequent motif of all medieval western Indian narratives, but the two communities for the most part coexisted and coprospered.[39] Shaiva kings patronised Jain mendicants, and Jain officials patronised Brahmana poets.[39]
Around the 8th century CE, Hindu philosopherĀdi Śaṅkarācārya tried to restore the Vedic religion. Śaṅkarācārya brought forward the doctrine of Advaita. The Vaishnavism and Shaivism also began to rise. This was particularly in the southern Indian states.[40]
According to a Saivite legend, the Pandya kingKoon Pandiyan ordered a massacre of 8,000 Jain monks. This event is depicted graphically in walls of Tivatur inNorth Arcot.[41] However, this legend is not found in any Jain text, and is believed to be a fabrication made up by the Saivites to prove their dominance.[42][43]
Jain scholars and some monks in general allowed a sort of cautious integration with the Hindu society.[citation needed] In today's date, there are a lot of common aspects in social and cultural life of Hindus and Jains. It is quite difficult to differentiate a lay Jain from a lay Hindu.[44] The Jain code of conduct is quite similar to that which is found in Hindu Dharmasashtra, Manusmriti and other Law books of Brahmans.[45][45][46] The difference in the rituals of practitioners of the two religions would be that the Jains do not give any importance to bathing in holy water.[45] According to religious scholar M. Whitney Kelting, some of the "names and narratives" in the Hindu's list of satis are also found in the Jain tradition.[47] In the Hindu context, a sati is a virtuous wife who protects her husband and his family and has the "intention to die before, or with," her husband.[47] Kelting notes that those satis who die on the funeral pyre of their husband, or who "intended to die" but were prevented from death, may attain a status called satimata.[47][48] Kelting says that the Jain tradition, due to principle of non-violence and equanimity, does not allow self-immolation.[49][47] They, instead, see renunciation rather than self-sacrifice as the highest ideal for a Jain sati.[47] Hindus think Jainism is simply another branch of Hinduism.[45] Jain historians likeChampat Rai Jain, held that Hindus are Jainaallegorists who have allegorised the Jain teachings.[50][7]
With the onset of British colonialism, select groups of Indians developed responses to the British dominance and the British critique of Hinduism.[51] In this context, various responses toward Jainism developed.[52]
The Arya Samaj was founded byDayanand Saraswati (1824–1883), who authored Satyarth Prakash,[53] a book containing the basic teachings of Saraswati and the Arya Samaj.[54] It contains "Dayananda's bitter criticisms of the majornon-Vedic religions of Indian origins."[55] In theSatyarth Prakash, he writes that he regarded Jainism as "the most dreadful religion",[56] and that Jains are "possessed of defective and childish understanding." However, several scholars say that none of his claims have any solid foundation and that they are merely aggressive, negative, unexplained and devoid of context, and intolerant in nature.[56][note 1] ProminentSvetambara Jain monk, Acharya Labdhisuri, wrote a scriptureDayananda Kutarka Timiratarani to refute these claims made by Dayanand Saraswati.[58]
Under the rule ofSubhatvarman (1194–1209 CE), a Parmara ruler in central India, Jainism faced hardships as a result of the ruler's animosity towards the religion.[59] Subhatavarman attacked Gujarat and plundered large number of Jain temples in Dabhoi and Cambay in 11th century.[60] Subhatavarman, during his campaigns in Lata, destroyed numerous Jain temples. Throughout the centuries, there were periods of hostility in the South as well, affecting both Buddhism and Jainism.[59] Inscriptions from the Srisailam area of Andhra Pradesh record the pride taken by Veerashaiva chiefs in beheading of shwetambar Jains.[61]
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