Hindu texts orHindu scriptures aremanuscripts and voluminous historical literature which are related to any of the diverse traditions withinHinduism. Some of the majorHindu texts include theVedas, theUpanishads, and theItihasa. Scholars hesitate in defining the term "Hindu scriptures" given the diverse nature of Hinduism,[1][2] but many list theAgamas as Hindu scriptures,[1][2][3] and Dominic Goodall includesBhagavata Purana andYajnavalkya Smriti in the list of Hindu scriptures as well.[1]
There are two historic classifications ofHindu texts:Shruti (Sanskrit: श्रुति,IAST:Śruti) – that which is heard,[4] andSmriti (Sanskrit: स्मृति,IAST:Smṛti) – that which is remembered.[5] TheShruti texts refer to the body of most authoritative and ancientreligious texts, believed to be eternal knowledge authored neither by human nor divine agent but transmitted by sages (rishis). These comprise the central canon ofHinduism.[4][6] It includes the fourVedas including its four types of embedded texts – theSamhitas, theBrahmanas, theAranyakas and theUpanishads.[7] Of theShrutis, the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.[8][9]
TheSmriti texts are a specific body ofHindu texts attributed to an author,[7] as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative thanShruti in Hinduism.[5] The Smriti literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited toVedāngas, the Hindu epics (such as the Mahabharat and Ramayan), theSutras and Shastras, the texts ofHindu philosophies, thePuranas, the Kāvya or poetical literature, theBhasyas, and numerousNibandhas (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.[10][11]
Many ancient Hindu texts were composed inSanskrit and other regional Indian languages. In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into otherIndian languages and some in non-Indian languages.[1] Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to the next, for more than a millennium before they were written down into manuscripts.[12][13] This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.[12][13]
The Shruti texts, defined as "that which is heard", are texts that are believed to be divine revelations of God and were heard by ancient rishis thousands of years ago. Thus, an author is not attributed to these texts.[14] The origin language of these texts is Sanskrit.[14] The Vedas are considered Shruti texts. The Vedas consist of four parts:Rig Veda,Sama Veda,Yajur Veda, andAtharva Veda.[15] Each Veda is subcategorized intoSamhitas,Brahmanas,Aranyakas, andUpanishads.[15]
Vedas are also calledshruti ("what is heard") literature,[24] distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are calledsmṛti ("what is remembered"). The Vedas, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations, some way or other the work of theDeity.[citation needed] In the Hindu Epic theMahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to the deity responsible for creation,Brahma.[25]
Each of the four Vedas[26][27] have been subclassified into four major text types:
The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism.[8][note 1] The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.[9][30]
The Upanishads are commonly referred to asVedānta, interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of theVeda" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".[31] The concepts ofBrahman (Ultimate Reality) andĀtman (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all theUpanishads,[32][33] and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.[33] The central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.[8][9][note 2]
More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which ten are the oldest and most important and are referred to as themukhya (main) orprincipal Upanishads.[34][35] The ten mukhya Upanishads are:Isha,Kena,Katha,Prashna,Mundaka,Mandukya,Taittiriya,Aitareya,Chandogya, andBrihadaranyaka.[36] Themukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of theBrahmanas andAranyakas[37] and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed downverbally. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist (6th century BCE),[38] down to theMaurya period.[39] Of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of theMuktika canon, composed from about the start of common era throughmedieval Hinduism. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued being composed through the early modern and modern era, though often dealing with subjects unconnected to Hinduism.[40][41]
The Sutras and Shastras texts were compilations of technical or specialized knowledge in a defined area. The earliest are dated to the latter half of the 1st millennium BCE. TheDharma-shastras (law books), derivatives of theDharma-sutras. Other examples werebhautikashastra "physics",rasayanashastra "chemistry",jīvashastra "biology",vastushastra "architectural science",shilpashastra "science of sculpture",arthashastra "economics" andnītishastra "political science".[44] It also includesTantras andAgama literature.[45]
A 19th century manuscript of the Hindu textBhagavad Gita
The Puranas, which mean "history" or "old", are Sanskrit texts which were composed between 3rd century BCE and 1000 CE.[46] The Puranas are a vast genre of Hindu texts that encyclopedically cover a wide range of topics, particularly legends and other traditional lore.[47] Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in regional languages,[48][49] several of these texts are named after majorHindu deities such asVishnu,Shiva, andDevi.[50][51]
The Puranic literature is encyclopedic,[52] and it includes diverse topics such ascosmogony,cosmology, genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy.[47][49][50] The content is diverse across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves voluminous and comprehensive. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of many authors over the centuries; in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated and their authors assigned.[48]
TheMahābhārata, which translates to "The Great Indian Tale", was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.[59][60] The text probably reached its final form by the earlyGupta period (c. 4th century CE).[61][62] The composition is traditionally attributed toVedavyasa and is made up of over 100,000shlokas.[63]
The plot of the Mahabharata covers the events of the war between two groups of cousins (thePandavas and theKauravas) and the aftermath of theKurukshetra War.[63] The Mahabharata also teaches aboutdharma (duty), the stories of many key figures in Hinduism, and includes theBhagavad Gita.[15]
The Bhagavad Gita is made up of 700 shlokas and is the discussion betweenKrishna andArjuna on the battlefield before the start of the war. Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita teaches Arjuna about atma (soul), God,moksha, and dharma.[64]
The Ramayana, an ancient Sanskrit text with the earliest part believed to have been composed in the 5th century BCE, is attributed to the sageValmiki and contains over 24,000 verses.[65]
The epic covers the life journey ofRama, an incarnation of Vishnu, along with his wifeSita, and brotherLakshmana. Central to the plot is the fourteen-year exile endured by Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana, during which Sita is abducted byRavana ofLanka. Rama, accompanied by Lakshmana,Hanuman (a devotee of Rama), and an army, engages in a battle with Ravana, ultimately emerging victorious with Rama's slaying of Ravana. The epic concludes with Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana's return toAyodhya, where Rama is crowned king and reigns over Ayodhya.[15]
The Hindu scriptures provide the early documented history of arts and science forms in India such asmusic,dance,sculptures,architecture,astronomy,science,mathematics,medicine andwellness.Valmiki'sRamayana (500 BCE to 100 BCE) mentions music and singing byGandharvas, dance byApsaras such asUrvashi,Rambha,Menaka,TilottamaPanchāpsaras, and byRavana's wives who excelling innrityageeta or "singing and dancing" andnritavaditra or "playing musical instruments").[93] The evidence of earliest dance related texts are inNatasutras, which are mentioned in the text ofPanini, the sage who wrote the classic onSanskrit grammar, and who is dated to about 500 BCE.[94][95] This performance arts relatedSutra text is mentioned in other late Vedic texts, as are two scholars names Shilalin (IAST: Śilālin) and Krishashva (Kṛśaśva), credited to be pioneers in the studies of ancient drama, singing, dance and Sanskrit compositions for these arts.[94][96] Richmond et al. estimate theNatasutras to have been composed around 600 BCE, whose complete manuscript has not survived into the modern age.[94][95]
^These include rebirth, karma, moksha, ascetic techniques and renunciation.Olivelle (1998)
^Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism.
^abcWendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press,ISBN978-0-226-61847-0, pp. 2–3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."
^Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pp. 103–130
^Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press,ISBN978-0-8248-2085-5, pp. 16–18
^abMichael Witzel, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.,ISBN1-4051-3251-5, pp. 68–71
^abWilliam Graham (1993), Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion, Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-0-521-44820-8, pp. 67–77
^abRoger R. Keller, "Hinduism,"Light and Truth: A Latter-day Saint Guide to World Religions (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2012), 16–39.
^abGavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-0-521-43878-0, pages 35–39
^Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977
^A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology,ISBN978-0-595-38455-6, pp. 8–14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0-19-533261-2, page 285
^Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-01603-2
^Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al.), State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-1080-6, p. 39;Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self."; Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin,ISBN978-1-59257-846-7, pp. 208–210
^Max Muller,The Upanishads, Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1
^Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press,ISBN978-0-231-14987-7, pp. 2–5
^Karl Potter (1991), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-81-208-0779-2
^Jan Gonda (1970 through 1987), A History of Indian Literature, Volumes 1 to 7, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-02676-5
^Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta (1981), Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-02091-6, pp. 7–14
^abcGreg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge,ISBN978-0-415-17281-3, pp. 437–439
^abJohn Cort (1993), Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts (Editor: Wendy Doniger), State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-1382-1, pp. 185–204
^abGregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press,ISBN978-1-57003-449-7, pp. 139
^abLudo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-02522-5, pp. 1–5, 12–21
^Ludwik Sternbach (1974), Subhāṣita: Gnomic and Didactic Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-01546-2
^Hartmut Scharfe, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN3-447-01722-8
^J Duncan M Derrett (1978), Dharmasastra and Juridical Literature: A history of Indian literature (Editor: Jan Gonda), Vol. 4, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN3-447-01519-5
^Claus Vogel, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN3-447-01722-8
^Kim Plofker (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton University Press,ISBN978-0-691-12067-6
^David Pingree, A Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit, Volumes 1 to 5, American Philosophical Society,ISBN978-0-87169-213-9
^Emmie te Nijenhuis, Musicological literature (A History of Indian literature; v. 6 : Scientific and technical literature; Fasc. 1), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-01831-9
^Lewis Rowell, Music and Musical Thought in Early India, University of Chicago Press,ISBN0-226-73033-6
King, Richard; Ācārya, Gauḍapāda (1995),Early Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism: the Mahāyāna context of the Gauḍapādīya-kārikā, SUNY Press,ISBN978-0-7914-2513-8
Mahadevan, T. M. P (1956), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (ed.),History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, George Allen & Unwin Ltd
MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (2004).A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN978-81-208-2000-5.
_Manuscript_LACMA_M.71.1.33.jpg)
