The concept ofdharma was in use in thehistorical Vedic religion (1500–500 BCE), and its meaning and conceptual scope has evolved over several millennia. InHinduism,dharma denotes behaviours that are considered to be in accord withṚta—the "order and custom" that makes life and universe possible.[note 1] This includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living".Dharma is believed to have a transtemporal validity, and is one of thePuruṣārtha.
As with the other components of the Puruṣārtha, the concept ofdharma is pan-Indian. The ancientTamil textTirukkuṟaḷ, despite being a collection of aphoristic teachings on dharma (aram), artha (porul), and kama (inpam), is completely and exclusively based onaṟam—the Tamil term fordharma.
The worddharma (/ˈdɑːrmə/)[4] has roots in theSanskritdhr-, which meansto hold orto support, and is related to Latinfirmus (firm, stable).[5] From this, it takes the meaning of "what is established or firm", and hence "law". It is derived from an olderVedic Sanskritn-stemdharman-, with a literal meaning of "bearer, supporter", in areligious sense conceived as an aspect ofRta.[6]
In theRigveda, the word appears as ann-stem,dhárman-, with a range of meanings encompassing "something established or firm" (in the literal sense of prods or poles). Figuratively, it means "sustainer" and "supporter" (ofdeities). It is semantically similar to the Greekthemis ("fixed decree, statute, law").[7]
Dharma is a concept of central importance inIndian philosophy andIndian religions.[16] It has multiple meanings inHinduism,Buddhism,Sikhism andJainism.[1] It is difficult to provide a single concise definition fordharma, as the word has a long and varied history and straddles a complex set of meanings and interpretations.[17] There is no equivalent single-word synonym fordharma in western languages.[18]
There have been numerous, conflicting attempts to translate ancient Sanskrit literature with the worddharma intoGerman, English and French. The concept, claims Paul Horsch, has caused exceptional difficulties for modern commentators and translators.[19] For example, while Grassmann's translation of Rig-Veda identifies seven different meanings of dharma,[20]Karl Friedrich Geldner in his translation of the Rig-Veda employs 20 different translations for dharma, including meanings such as "law", "order", "duty", "custom", "quality", and "model", among others.[19] However, the worddharma has become a widely acceptedloanword in English, and is included in all modern unabridged English dictionaries.
The root of the worddharma is "dhr̥", which means "to support, hold, or bear". It is the thing that regulates the course of change by not participating in change, but that principle which remains constant.[21]Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, the widely cited resource for definitions and explanation of Sanskrit words and concepts of Hinduism, offers[22] numerous definitions of the worddharma, such as that which is established or firm, steadfast decree, statute, law, practice, custom, duty, right, justice, virtue, morality, ethics, religion, religious merit, good works, nature, character, quality, property. Yet, each of these definitions is incomplete, while the combination of these translations does not convey the total sense of the word. In common parlance,dharma means "right way of living" and "path of rightness".[21] Dharma also has connotations of order, and when combined with the wordsanatana, it can also be described as eternal truth.[23]
The meaning of the worddharma depends on the context, and its meaning has evolved as ideas of Hinduism have developed through history. In the earliest texts and ancient myths of Hinduism,dharma meant cosmic law, the rules that created the universe from chaos, as well as rituals; in laterVedas,Upanishads,Puranas and theEpics, the meaning became refined, richer, and more complex, and the word was applied to diverse contexts.[24]In certain contexts,dharma designates human behaviours considered necessary for order of things in the universe, principles that prevent chaos, behaviours and action necessary to all life in nature, society, family as well as at the individual level.[2][24][25][note 1]Dharma encompasses ideas such as duty, rights, character, vocation, religion, customs and all behaviour considered appropriate, correct or morally upright.[26] For further context, the wordvarnasramdharma is often used in its place, defined as dharma specifically related to the stage of life one is in.[27] The concept ofDharma is believed to have a transtemporal validity.[28]
The antonym ofdharma isadharma (Sanskrit: अधर्म),[29] meaning that which is "not dharma". As withdharma, the wordadharma includes and implies many ideas; in common parlance, adharma means that which is against nature, immoral, unethical, wrong or unlawful.[30]
In Buddhism,dharma incorporates the teachings and doctrines of the founder of Buddhism,the Buddha.
According toPandurang Vaman Kane, author of the bookHistory of Dharmaśāstra, the worddharma appears at least fifty-six times in the hymns of theRigveda, as an adjective or noun. According to Paul Horsch, the worddharma has its origin in Vedic Hinduism.[19] The hymns of theRigveda claimBrahman created the universe from chaos, they hold (dhar-) the earth and sun and stars apart, they support (dhar-) the sky away and distinct from earth, and they stabilise (dhar-) the quaking mountains and plains.[19][31]
TheDeities, mainlyIndra, then deliver and hold order from disorder, harmony from chaos, stability from instability – actions recited in the Veda with the root of word dharma.[24] In hymns composed after the mythological verses, the word dharma takes expanded meaning as acosmic principle and appears in verses independent ofdeities. It evolves into a concept, claims Paul Horsch, that has a dynamic functional sense inAtharvaveda for example, where it becomes the cosmic law that links cause and effect through a subject.[19] Dharma, in these ancient texts, also takes a ritual meaning. The ritual is connected to the cosmic, and "dharmani" is equated to ceremonial devotion to the principles that deities used to create order from disorder, the world from chaos.[32]
Past the ritual and cosmic sense of dharma that link the current world to mythical universe, the concept extends to an ethical-social sense that links human beings to each other and to other life forms. It is here that dharma as a concept of law emerges in Hinduism.[33][34]
Dharma and related words are found in the oldest Vedic literature ofHinduism, in later Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and the Epics; the word dharma also plays a central role in the literature of other Indian religions founded later, such as Buddhism and Jainism.[24] According to Brereton,Dharman occurs 63 times inRig-veda; in addition, words related to Dharman also appear in Rig-veda, for example once as dharmakrt, 6 times assatyadharman, and once asdharmavant, 4 times asdharman and twice asdhariman.[35]
Indo-European parallels for "dharma" are known, but the only Iranian equivalent is Old Persiandarmān, meaning "remedy". This meaning is different from theIndo-Aryandhárman, suggesting that the word "dharma" did not play a major role in theIndo-Iranian period. Instead, it was primarily developed more recently under the Vedic tradition.[35]
It is thought that theDaena ofZoroastrianism, also meaning the "eternal Law" or "religion", is related to Sanskrit "dharma".[36] Ideas in parts overlapping toDharma are found in other ancient cultures: such as ChineseTao, EgyptianMaat, SumerianMe.[21]
TheKandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription is from IndianEmperor Asoka in 258 BCE, and found inAfghanistan. The inscription renders the worddharma in Sanskrit aseusebeia in Greek, suggestingdharma in ancient India meant spiritual maturity, devotion, piety, duty towards and reverence for human community.[37]
Scholars of Hellenistic Greece explain eusebeia as a complex concept. Eusebia means not only to veneratedeities, but also spiritual maturity, a reverential attitude toward life, and includes the right conduct toward one's parents, siblings and children, the right conduct between husband and wife, and the conduct between biologically unrelated people. This rock inscription, concludes Paul Hacker, suggests dharma in India, about 2300 years ago, was a central concept and meant not only religious ideas, but ideas of right, of good, of one's duty toward the human community.[37][38]
The evolving literature of Hinduism linkeddharma to two other important concepts:Ṛta andMāyā.Ṛta in Vedas is the truth andcosmic principle which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.[39][40]Māyā in Rig-veda and later literature means illusion, fraud, deception, magic that misleads and creates disorder,[41] thus is contrary to reality, laws and rules that establish order, predictability and harmony. Paul Horsch suggests Ṛta anddharma are parallel concepts, the former being a cosmic principle, the latter being of moral social sphere;[19] while Māyā anddharma are also correlative concepts, the former being that which corrupts law and moral life, the later being that which strengthens law and moral life.[39][42]
Day proposesdharma is a manifestation of Ṛta, but suggests Ṛta may have been subsumed into a more complex concept ofdharma, as the idea developed in ancient India over time in a nonlinear manner.[43] The following verse from theRigveda is an example whererta anddharma are linked:
O Indra, lead us on the path of Rta, on the right path over all evils...
Dharma is an organising principle inHinduism that applies to human beings in solitude, in their interaction with human beings and nature, as well as between inanimate objects, to all ofcosmos and its parts.[21] It refers to the order and customs which make life and universe possible, and includes behaviours, rituals, rules that govern society, and ethics.[2][note 1]Hindudharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviours that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.[44]Dharma, according to Van Buitenen,[45] is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is neither the act nor the result, but the natural laws that guide the act and create the result to prevent chaos in the world. It is innate characteristic, that makes the being what it is. It is, claims Van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert. In Hinduism, it is thedharma of the bee to make honey, of cow to give milk, of sun to radiate sunshine, of river to flow.[45] In terms of humanity,dharma is the need for, the effect of and essence of service and interconnectedness of all life.[21][37] This includes duties, rights,laws, conduct,virtues and "right way of living".[46]
In its true essence,dharma means for a Hindu to "expand the mind". Furthermore, it represents the direct connection between the individual and the societal phenomena that bind the society together. In the way societal phenomena affect the conscience of the individual, similarly may the actions of an individual alter the course of the society, for better or for worse. This has been subtly echoed by the credo धर्मो धारयति प्रजा: meaningdharma is that which holds and provides support to the social construct.[citation needed]
In Hinduism,dharma generally includes various aspects:
Yuga dharma,dharma which is valid for ayuga, an epoch or age as established by Hindu tradition and thus may change at the conclusion of its time.[1][53]
Thehistory section of this article discusses the development ofdharma concept inVedas. This development continued in theUpanishads and later ancient scripts of Hinduism. In Upanishads, the concept ofdharma continues as universal principle of law, order, harmony, and truth. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the Universe. It is explained as law of righteousness and equated tosatya (Sanskrit:सत्यं, truth),[19][54] in hymn 1.4.14 ofBrhadaranyaka Upanishad, as follows:
Nothing is higher than dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by dharma, as over a king. Truly that dharma is the Truth (Satya); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.
Mimamsa, developed through commentaries on its foundational texts, particularly theMimamsa Sutras attributed toJaimini, emphasizes "the desire to know dharma" as the central concern, defining dharma as what connects a person with the highest good, always yet to be realized. While some schools associate dharma with post-mortem existence,Mimamsakas focus on the continual renewal and realization of a ritual world through adherence to Vedic injunctions. They assert that the ultimate good is essentially inaccessible to perception and can only be understood through language, reflecting confidence in Vedic injunctions and the reality of language as a means of knowing.[55]
Mimamsa addresses the delayed results of actions (like wealth or heaven) through the concept of apurva or adrsta, an unseen force that preserves the connection between actions and their outcomes. This ensures that Vedic sacrifices, though their results are delayed, are effective and reliable in guiding toward dharma.[56]
The Hindu religion and philosophy, claimsDaniel Ingalls, places major emphasis on individual practical morality. In the Sanskrit epics, this concern is omnipresent.[57] In Hindu Epics, the good, morally upright, law-abiding king is referred to as "dharmaraja".[58]
Dharma is at the centre of all major events in the life of Dasharatha,Rama,Sita, andLakshman in Ramayana. In the Ramayana, Dasharatha upholds his dharma by honoring a promise to Kaikeyi, resulting in his beloved son Rama's exile, even though it brings him immense personal suffering.[59]
In theMahabharata, dharma is central, and it is presented through symbolism and metaphors. Near the end of the epic, Yama referred to asdharma in the text, is portrayed as taking the form of adog to test the compassion ofYudhishthira, who is told he may not enter paradise with such an animal. Yudhishthira refuses to abandon his companion, for which he is then praised bydharma.[60] The value and appeal of the Mahabharata, according to Ingalls, is not as much in its complex and rushed presentation of metaphysics in the 12th book.[59] Indian metaphysics, he argues, is more eloquently presented in other Sanskrit scriptures. Instead, the appeal of Mahabharata, likeRamayana, lies in its presentation of a series of moral problems and life situations, where there are usually three answers:[59] one answer is ofBhima, which represents brute force, an individual angle representing materialism, egoism, and self; the second answer is ofYudhishthira, which appeals to piety,deities, social virtue, and tradition; the third answer is of introspectiveArjuna, which falls between the two extremes, and who, claims Ingalls, symbolically reveals the finest moral qualities of man. The Epics of Hinduism are a symbolic treatise about life, virtues, customs, morals, ethics, law, and other aspects ofdharma.[61] There is extensive discussion ofdharma at the individual level in the Epics of Hinduism; for example, on free will versus destiny, when and why human beings believe in either, the strong and prosperous naturally uphold free will, while those facing grief or frustration naturally lean towards destiny.[62] The Epics of Hinduism illustrate various aspects ofdharma with metaphors.[63]
According toKlaus Klostermaier, 4th-century CE Hindu scholarVātsyāyana explaineddharma by contrasting it with adharma.[64] Vātsyāyana suggested thatdharma is not merely in one's actions, but also in words one speaks or writes, and in thought. According to Vātsyāyana:[64][65]
Adharma of body: hinsa (violence), steya (steal, theft), pratisiddha maithuna (sexual indulgence with someone other than one's partner)
Dharma of body: dana (charity), paritrana (succor of the distressed) and paricarana (rendering service to others)
Adharma from words one speaks or writes: mithya (falsehood), parusa (caustic talk), sucana (calumny) and asambaddha (absurd talk)
Dharma from words one speaks or writes: satya (truth and facts), hitavacana (talking with good intention), priyavacana (gentle, kind talk), svadhyaya (self-study)
Adharma of mind: paradroha (ill will to anyone), paradravyabhipsa (covetousness), nastikya (denial of the existence of morals and religiosity)
Dharma of mind: daya (compassion), asprha (disinterestedness), and sraddha (faith in others)
Dharma is part ofyoga, suggestsPatanjali; the elements of Hindu dharma are the attributes, qualities and aspects of yoga.[66] Patanjali explaineddharma in two categories:yamas (restraints) andniyamas (observances).[64]
The five yamas, according to Patanjali, are: abstain from injury to all living creatures, abstain from falsehood (satya), abstain from unauthorised appropriation of things-of-value from another (acastrapurvaka), abstain from coveting or sexually cheating on your partner, and abstain from expecting or accepting gifts from others.[67] The five yama apply in action, speech and mind. In explaining yama, Patanjali clarifies that certain professions and situations may require qualification in conduct. For example, a fisherman must injure a fish, but he must attempt to do this with least trauma to fish and the fisherman must try to injure no other creature as he fishes.[68]
The five niyamas (observances) are cleanliness by eating pure food and removing impure thoughts (such as arrogance or jealousy or pride), contentment in one's means, meditation and silent reflection regardless of circumstances one faces, study and pursuit of historic knowledge, and devotion of all actions to the Supreme Teacher to achieve perfection of concentration.[69]
Dharma is an empirical and experiential inquiry for every man and woman, according to some texts of Hinduism.[37][70] For example,Apastamba Dharmasutra states:
Dharma andAdharma do not go around saying, "That is us." Neither do gods, nor gandharvas, nor ancestors declare what isDharma and what isAdharma.
In other texts, three sources and means to discoverdharma in Hinduism are described. These, according toPaul Hacker, are:[72] First, learning historical knowledge such as Vedas, Upanishads, the Epics and otherSanskrit literature with the help of one's teacher. Second, observing the behaviour and example of good people. The third source applies when neither one's education nor example exemplary conduct is known. In this case, "atmatusti" is the source ofdharma in Hinduism, that is the good person reflects and follows what satisfies his heart, his own inner feeling, what he feels driven to.[72]
Some texts of Hinduism outlinedharma for society and at the individual level. Of these, the most cited one isManusmriti, which describes the fourVarnas, their rights and duties.[73] Most texts of Hinduism, however, discussdharma with no mention ofVarna (caste).[74] Otherdharma texts and Smritis differ from Manusmriti on the nature and structure of Varnas.[73] Yet, other texts question the very existence of varna.Bhrigu, in the Epics, for example, presents the theory thatdharma does not require any varnas.[75] In practice, medieval India is widely believed to be a socially stratified society, with each social strata inheriting a profession and being endogamous. Varna was not absolute in Hindu dharma; individuals had the right to renounce and leave their Varna, as well as theirasramas of life, in search of moksa.[73][76] While neither Manusmriti nor succeeding Smritis of Hinduism ever use the word varnadharma (that is, thedharma of varnas), or varnasramadharma (that is, thedharma of varnas and asramas), the scholarly commentary on Manusmriti use these words, and thus associatedharma with varna system of India.[73][77] In 6th century India, even Buddhist kings called themselves "protectors of varnasramadharma" – that is,dharma of varna and asramas of life.[73][78]
At the individual level, some texts of Hinduism outlinefour āśramas, or stages of life as individual'sdharma. These are:[79] (1)brahmacārya, the life of preparation as a student, (2)gṛhastha, the life of the householder with family and other social roles, (3)vānprastha or aranyaka, the life of the forest-dweller, transitioning from worldly occupations to reflection and renunciation, and (4)sannyāsa, the life of giving away all property, becoming a recluse and devotion to moksa, spiritual matters. Patrick Olivelle suggests that "ashramas represented life choices rather than sequential steps in the life of a single individual" and the vanaprastha stage was added before renunciation over time, thus forming life stages.[80]
The four stages of life complete the four human strivings in life, according to Hinduism.[81]Dharma enables the individual to satisfy the striving for stability and order, a life that is lawful and harmonious, the striving to do the right thing, be good, be virtuous, earn religious merit, be helpful to others, interact successfully with society. The other three strivings areArtha – the striving for means of life such as food, shelter, power, security, material wealth, and so forth;Kama – the striving for sex, desire, pleasure, love, emotional fulfilment, and so forth; andMoksa – the striving for spiritual meaning, liberation from life-rebirth cycle, self-realisation in this life, and so forth. The four stages are neither independent nor exclusionary in Hindudharma.[81]
Dharma being necessary for individual and society, is dependent on poverty and prosperity in a society, according to Hindu dharma scriptures. For example, according to Adam Bowles,[82]Shatapatha Brahmana 11.1.6.24 links social prosperity anddharma through water. Waters come from rains, it claims; when rains are abundant there is prosperity on the earth, and this prosperity enables people to followDharma – moral and lawful life. In times of distress, of drought, of poverty, everything suffers including relations between human beings and the human ability to live according todharma.[82]
In Rajadharmaparvan 91.34-8, the relationship between poverty anddharma reaches a full circle. A land with less moral and lawful life suffers distress, and as distress rises it causes more immoral and unlawful life, which further increases distress.[82][83] Those in power must follow the raja dharma (that is, dharma of rulers), because this enables the society and the individual to follow dharma and achieve prosperity.[84]
The notion ofdharma as duty or propriety is found in India's ancient legal and religious texts. Common examples of such use are pitri dharma (meaning a person's duty as a father), putra dharma (a person's duty as a son), raj dharma (a person's duty as a king) and so forth.[28] In Hindu philosophy, justice, social harmony, and happiness requires that people live perdharma. TheDharmashastra is a record of these guidelines and rules.[85] The available evidence suggest India once had a large collection ofdharma related literature (sutras, shastras); four of the sutras survive and these are now referred to as Dharmasutras.[71] Along with laws of Manu in Dharmasutras, exist parallel and different compendium of laws, such as the laws of Narada and other ancient scholars.[86][87] These different and conflicting law books are neither exclusive, nor do they supersede other sources ofdharma in Hinduism. These Dharmasutras include instructions on education of the young, their rites of passage, customs, religious rites and rituals, marital rights and obligations, death and ancestral rites, laws and administration of justice, crimes, punishments, rules and types of evidence, duties of a king, as well as morality.[71]
Buddhism held the Hindu view ofDharma as "cosmic law", as in the working ofKarma.[2] The term Dharma (Pali:dhamma) later came to refer to the teachings ofthe Buddha (pariyatti); the practice (paṭipatti) of the Buddha's teachings is then comprehended as Dharma.[2][88] InBuddhist philosophy,dhamma/dharma is also the term for "phenomena".[88][3]
For practising Buddhists, references todharma (dhamma in Pali) particularly as "the dharma", generally means the teachings of the Buddha, commonly known throughout the East as Buddhadharma. It includes especially the discourses on the fundamental principles (such as theFour Noble Truths and theNoble Eightfold Path), as opposed to the parables and to the poems. The Buddha's teachings explain that in order to end suffering,dharma, or the right thoughts, understanding, actions and livelihood, should be cultivated.[89]
The status ofdharma is regarded variably by different Buddhist traditions. Some regard it as an ultimate truth, or as the fount of all things which lie beyond the "three realms" (Sanskrit:tridhatu) and the "wheel of becoming" (Sanskrit:bhavachakra). Others, who regard the Buddha as simply an enlightened human being, see thedharma as theessence of the "84,000 different aspects of the teaching" (Tibetan:chos-sgo brgyad-khri bzhi strong) that the Buddha gave to various types of people, based upon their individual propensities and capabilities.
Dharma refers not only to the sayings of theBuddha, but also to the later traditions of interpretation and addition that the variousschools of Buddhism have developed to help explain and to expand upon the Buddha's teachings. For others still, they see thedharma as referring to the "truth", or the ultimate reality of "the way that things really are" (Tibetan:Chö).
Thedharma is one of theThree Jewels of Buddhism in which practitioners of Buddhism seek refuge, or that upon which one relies for his or her lasting happiness. The Three Jewels of Buddhism are theBuddha, meaning the mind's perfection of enlightenment, thedharma, meaning the teachings and the methods of the Buddha, and theSangha, meaning the community of practitioners who provide one another guidance and support.
Dharma is employed inChan Buddhism in a specific context in relation to transmission of authentic doctrine, understanding and bodhi; recognised indharma transmission.
The worddharma in Jainism is found in all its key texts. It has a contextual meaning and refers to a number of ideas. In the broadest sense, it means the teachings of the Jinas,[2] or teachings of any competing spiritual school,[91] a supreme path,[92] socio-religious duty,[93] and that which is the highestmangala (holy).[94]
A right believer should constantly meditate on virtues of dharma, like supreme modesty, in order to protect the Self from all contrary dispositions. He should also cover up the shortcomings of others.
The termdharmāstikāya (Sanskrit:धर्मास्तिकाय) also has a specificontological and soteriological meaning in Jainism, as a part of its theory of sixdravya (substance or a reality). In the Jain tradition, existence consists ofjīva (soul,ātman) andajīva (non-soul,anātman), the latter consisting of five categories: inert non-sentient atomic matter (pudgalāstikāya), space (ākāśa), time (kāla), principle of motion (dharmāstikāya), and principle of rest (adharmāstikāya).[97][98] The use of the termdharmāstikāya to mean motion and to refer to an ontological sub-category is peculiar to Jainism, and not found in themetaphysics of Buddhism and various schools of Hinduism.[98]
ForSikhs, the worddharam (Punjabi:ਧਰਮ,romanized: dharam) means the path of righteousness and proper religious practice.[99]Guru Granth Sahib connotesdharma as duty and moral values.[100] The3HO movement in Western culture, which has incorporated certain Sikh beliefs, defines Sikh Dharma broadly as all that constitutes religion, moral duty and way of life.[101]
Several works of theSangam and post-Sangam period, many of which are ofHindu orJain origin, emphasizes ondharma. Most of these texts are based onaṟam, the Tamil term fordharma. The ancientTamil moral text of theTirukkuṟaḷ orKural, a text probably of Jain or Hindu origin,[102][103][104][105][106] despite being a collection of aphoristic teachings ondharma (aram), artha (porul), and kama (inpam),[107][108] is completely and exclusively based onaṟam.[109] TheNaladiyar, a Jain text of the post-Sangam period, follows a similar pattern as that of the Kural in emphasizingaṟam ordharma.[110]
The originalLion Capital of Ashoka, fromSarnath. It originally supported a largedharmachakra (the earliest symbol of the Dharma) on the top (which has been reconstructed here).The wheel in the centre of India's flag symbolises Ashoka's dhamma.
The importance ofdharma to Indian civilization is illustrated by India's decision in 1947 to include theAshoka Chakra, a depiction of thedharmachakra (the "wheel ofdharma"), as the central motif on its flag.[111]
^abcFrom theOxford Dictionary of World Religions: "In Hinduism, dharma is a fundamental concept, referring to the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order."[2]
^David Kalupahana: "The old Indian termdharma was retained by the Buddha to refer to phenomena or things. However, he was always careful to define thisdharma as "dependently arisen phenomena" (paticca-samuppanna-dhamma) ... In order to distinguish this notion ofdhamma from the Indian conception where the termdharma meant reality (atman), in an ontological sense, the Buddha utilised the conception of result or consequence or fruit (attha, Sk.artha) to bring out the pragmatic meaning ofdhamma."[3]
^The common duties ofSadharana-dharma is based on the idea that, individuals (Jiva) are born with a number of debts, hence through common moral duties prescribed in theSadharana dharma would help to repay one's debts to the humanity.[52]
Fitzgerald, James (2004), "Dharma and its Translation in the Mahābhārata",Journal of Indian philosophy, 32(5), pp. 671–685; Quote – "virtues enter the general topic of dharma as 'common, or general, dharma', ..."
Frawley, David (2009),Yoga and Ayurveda: Self-Healing and Self-Realization,ISBN978-0-9149-5581-8; Quote – "Yoga is a dharmic approach to the spiritual life...";
Harvey, Mark (1986), The Secular as Sacred?, Modern Asian Studies, 20(2), pp. 321–331.
^Jackson, Bernard S. (1975), "From dharma to law",The American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 23, No. 3 (Summer, 1975), pp. 490–512.
^Flood 1994, "Chapter 3"; Quote – "Rites of passage are dharma in action."; "Rites of passage, a category of rituals,..."
^Coward 2004; Quote – "Hindu stages of life approach (ashrama dharma)..."
Creel, Austin (1975), "The Reexamination of Dharma in Hindu Ethics",Philosophy East and West, 25(2), pp. 161–173; Quote – "Dharma pointed to duty, and specified duties..";
Trommsdorff, Gisela (2012), Development of "agentic" regulation in cultural context: the role of self and world views, Child Development Perspectives, 6(1), pp. 19–26; Quote – "Neglect of one's duties (dharma – sacred duties toward oneself, the family, the community, and humanity) is seen as an indicator of immaturity."
^Dhand, Arti (17 December 2002). "The Dharma of Ethics, the Ethics of Dharma: Quizzing the Ideals of Hinduism".Journal of Religious Ethics.30 (3): 351.doi:10.1111/1467-9795.00113.ISSN1467-9795.
Carl Cappeller (1999),Monier-Williams: A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Etymological and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages, Asian Educational Services,ISBN978-81-206-0369-1, pp. 510–512.
English translated version by Jarrod Whitaker: Horsch, Paul, (December 2004) "From Creation Myth to World Law: the Early History of Dharma",Journal of Indian Philosophy, Volume 32, Issue 5–6, pp. 423–448; Original peer-reviewed publication in German: Horsch, Paul, (1967) "Vom Schoepfungsmythos zum Weltgesetz",Asiatische Studien: Zeitschrift der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Asiankunde, Volume 21, pp. 31–61;
English translated version by Donald R. Davis: Paul Hacker, (2006) "Dharma in Hinduism",Journal of Indian Philosophy, Volume 34, Issue 5, pp. 479–496; Original peer-reviewed publication in German: Paul Hacker, (1965) "Dharma im Hinduismus"Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft und Religionswissenschaft Volume 49, pp. 93–106.
Bowker (2018); "...the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order".
Albrecht Wezler, "Dharma in the Veda and the Dharmaśāstras",Journal of Indian Philosophy, December 2004, Volume 32, Issue 5–6, pp. 629–654
Johannes Heesterman (1978). "Veda and Dharma", in W. D. O'Flaherty (ed.),The Concept of Duty in South Asia, New Delhi: Vikas,ISBN978-0-7286-0032-4, pp. 80–95
^P. Thieme, Gedichte aus dem Rig-Veda, Reclam Universal-Bibliothek Nr. 8930, p. 52.
^abBrereton (2004); "There are Indo-European parallels todhárman (cf. Wennerberg 1981: 95f.), but the only Iranian equivalent is Old Persiandarmān, 'remedy', which has little bearing on Indo-Aryandhárman. There is thus no evidence that IIr. *dharman was a significant culture word during the Indo-Iranian period." (p. 449) "The origin of the concept of dharman rests in its formation. It is a Vedic, rather than an Indo-Iranian word, and a more recent coinage than many other key religious terms of the Vedic tradition. Its meaning derives directly from dhr 'support, uphold, give foundation to' and therefore 'foundation' is a reasonable gloss in most of its attestations." (p. 485).
^Arnold, Daniel (Summer 2024),"Kumārila", in Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.),The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University,archived from the original on 8 Jul 2024, retrieved2024-04-11
^There is considerable amount of literature on dharma-related discussion in Hindu Epics: of Egoism versus Altruism, Individualism versus Social Virtues and Tradition; for examples, see:
Meyer, Johann Jakob (1989),Sexual life in ancient India,ISBN81-208-0638-7, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 92–93; Quote – "In Indian literature, especially in Mahabharata over and over again is heard the energetic cry – Each is alone. None belongs to anyone else, we are all but strangers to strangers; (...), none knows the other, the self belongs only to self. Man is born alone, alone he lives, alone he dies, alone he tastes the fruit of his deeds and his ways, it is only his work that bears him company. (...) Our body and spiritual organism is ever changing; what belongs, then, to us? (...) Thus, too, there is really no teacher or leader for anyone, each is his own Guru, and must go along the road to happiness alone. Only the self is the friend of man, only the self is the foe of man; from others nothing comes to him. Therefore, what must be done is to honor, to assert one's self..."; Quote – "(in parts of the epic), the most thoroughgoing egoism and individualism is stressed..."
Piper, Raymond F. (1954), "In Support of Altruism in Hinduism",Journal of Bible and Religion, Vol. 22, No. 3 (Jul., 1954), pp. 178–183
Ganeri, J. (2010), A Return to the Self: Indians and Greeks on Life as Art and Philosophical Therapy, Royal Institute of Philosophy supplement, 85(66), pp. 119–135.
^Ingalls (1957), pp. 44–45; Quote – "(...)In the Epic, free will has the upper hand. Only when a man's effort is frustrated or when he is overcome with grief does he become a predestinarian (believer in destiny)."; Quote – "This association of success with the doctrine of free will or human effort (purusakara) was felt so clearly that among the ways of bringing about a king's downfall is given the following simple advice: 'Belittle free will to him, and emphasise destiny.'" (Mahabharata 12.106.20).
^Kumarila Bhatta, Tantravarttika, Anandasramasamskrtagranthavalih, Vol. 97, pp. 204–205.(in Sanskrit); For an English Translation, see Ganganatha Jha (tr.) (1924), Bibliotheca Indica, Work No. 161, Vol. 1.
^abcBowles, Adam (2007), "Chapter 3",Dharma, Disorder, and the Political in Ancient India, Brill's Indological Library (Book 28),ISBN978-90-04-15815-3.
^Derrett, J. D. M. (1959), "Bhu-bharana, bhu-palana, bhu-bhojana: an Indian conundrum", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 22, pp. 108–123.
^Gonda, Jan, "Ancient Indian Kingship from the Religious Point of View",Numen, Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Jan., 1956), pp. 36–71.
^Gächter, Othmar (1998). "Anthropos".Anthropos Institute.
^Davis, Donald Jr. (September 2006) "A Realist View of Hindu Law",Ratio Juris. Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 287–313.
^Lariviere, Richard W. (2003), The Naradasmrti, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
^ab"dhamma",The New Concise Pali English Dictionary.
^Brown, Hannah Jean (2019). "Key Tenets of Classical BuddhistDharma Leave Space for the Practice of Abortion and are Upheld by Contemporary Japanese BuddhistMizuko Kuyo Remembrance Rituals".Journal of Religion and Health.58 (2): 477.doi:10.1007/s10943-019-00763-4.PMID30673995.
^Cole, W. Owen (2014), in Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech (eds.),The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies,ISBN978-0-19-969930-8, Oxford University Press, p. 254.
^Dusenbery, Verne (2014), in Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech (eds.),The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies,ISBN978-0-19-969930-8, Oxford University Press, pp. 560–568.
^Sanjeevi, N. (2006).First All India Tirukkural Seminar Papers (2nd ed.). Chennai: University of Madras. p. 82.
^Velusamy, N.; Faraday, Moses Michael, eds. (2017).Why Should Thirukkural Be Declared the National Book of India? (in Tamil and English) (1st ed.). Chennai: Unique Media Integrators. p. 55.ISBN978-93-85471-70-4.
Conlon, Frank F. (1994). "Hindu revival and Indian womanhood: The image and status of women in the writings of Vishnubawa Brahamachari".South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies.17 (2):43–61.doi:10.1080/00856409408723205.
Coward, Harold (2004). "Hindu bioethics for the twenty-first century".JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association.291 (22):2759–2760.doi:10.1001/jama.291.22.2759.
Day, Terence P. (1982).The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature. Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press.ISBN978-0-919812-15-4.
Flood, Gavin (1998). "Chapter 2, Making moral decisions". In Paul Bowen (ed.).Themes and issues in Hinduism. Cassell.ISBN978-0-304-33851-1.
Fritzman, J.M. (2015). "The Bhagavadgītā, Sen, and Anderson".International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East.25 (4):319–338.doi:10.1080/09552367.2015.1102693.S2CID146705129.
Goodwin, William F. (Jan 1955). "Ethics and Value in Indian Philosophy".Philosophy East and West.4 (4):321–344.doi:10.2307/1396742.JSTOR1396742.
Grimes, John A. (1996).A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. State University of New York Press.ISBN0791430677.
Horsch, Paul (December 2004). "From Creation Myth to World Law: the Early History of Dharma".Journal of Indian Philosophy.32 (5–6). Translated by Jarrod Whitaker:423–448.doi:10.1007/s10781-004-8628-3.JSTOR23497148.
Ingalls, Daniel H. H. (Apr–Jul 1957). "Dharma and Moksa".Philosophy East and West.7 (1/2):41–48.doi:10.2307/1396833.JSTOR1396833.
Jacobs, Stephen (2010).Hinduism Today. Continuum International Publishing Group.ISBN9780826440273.
Potter, Karl H. (Apr–Jul 1958). "Dharma and Mokṣa from a Conversational Point of View".Philosophy East and West.8 (1/2):49–63.doi:10.2307/1397421.JSTOR1397421.
Purnalingam Pillai, M. S. (2015).Tamil Literature. Chennai: International Institute of Tamil Studies.
Rocher, Ludo (2003). "Chapter 4, The Dharmasastra". In Gavin Flood (ed.).The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Wiley.ISBN978-0-631-21535-6.
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