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Hindu denominations,sampradayas,traditions,movements, andsects are traditions and sub-traditions withinHinduism centered on one or more gods or goddesses, such asVishnu,Shiva,Shakti and so on.[1] The termsampradaya is used for branches with a particular founder-guru with a particular philosophy.[2]
Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition.[3] Four major traditions are, however, used in scholarly studies:Vaishnavism,Shaivism,Shaktism andSmartism.[1][4][5][6] These are sometimes referred to as the denominations of Hinduism, and they differ in the primary deity at the centre of each tradition.[7]
A notable feature of Hindu denominations is that they do not deny other concepts of the divine or deity, and often celebrate the other ashenotheistic equivalents.[8] The denominations of Hinduism, statesLipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practising more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".[9]
Although Hinduism contains many denominations and philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals,cosmology,shared textual resources,pilgrimage to sacred sites and thequestioning of authority.[10]
The wordHindu is anexonym. This wordHindu is derived from theIndo-Aryan andSanskrit wordSindhu, which means "a large body of water", covering "river, ocean". It was used as the name of theIndus River and also referred to its tributaries. The actual term 'Hindu' first occurs, states Gavin Flood, as "aPersian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit:Sindhu)". Hindus are persons who regard themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects ofHinduism. Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for people living in theIndian subcontinent. In the 18th century, European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers ofIndian religions collectively asHindus until about mid 20th century. Hindus subscribe to a diversity of ideas onspirituality and traditions, but have no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to bepolytheistic,pantheistic,monotheistic,monistic,agnostic,atheistic orhumanist.[11][12][13]
Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into sixdarsanas (philosophies), two schools,Vedanta andYoga, are currently the most prominent.[14] Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents areVaishnavism (Vishnu),Shaivism (Shiva),Shaktism (Shakti) andSmartism (five deities treated as same).[4][5][15] These deity-centered denominations feature a synthesis of variousphilosophies such as Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta, as well as shared spiritual concepts such asmoksha,dharma,karma,samsara, ethical precepts such asahimsa, texts (Upanishads,Puranas,Mahabharata, Agamas), ritual grammar and rites of passage.[10][16]
McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six generic types of Hinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views on a rather complex subject:[17]
InHinduism, asampradaya (IASTsampradāya)[a] is a denomination.[19] These are teaching traditions with autonomous practices and monastic centers, with a guru lineage, with ideas developed and transmitted, redefined and reviewed by each successive generation of followers.[20] A particularguru lineage is calledparampara. By receivingdiksha (initiation) into theparampara of a living guru, one belongs to its propersampradaya.
| Tradition | Followers |
|---|---|
| Vaishnavism | 399,526,000 |
| Shaivism | 385,423,000 |
| Shaktism | 305,643,000 |
| Neo-Hinduism | 20,300,000 |
| Reform Hinduism | 5,200,000 |
| Cumulative | 1,116,092,000 |
There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism.[22]
Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2020 estimate by The World Religion Database (WRD), hosted at Boston University’s Institute on Culture, Religion and World Affairs (CURA), the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 399 million Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 385 million Hindus, Shaktism with 305 million Hindus and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25 million Hindus.[23] In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism.[24]
Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly.[25] The denominations of Hinduism, statesJulius J. Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals revering gods and goddessespolycentrically, with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly, Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati (such as Durga, Radha, Sita and others) and Saraswati important in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.[26]
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Vaishnavism is a devotional stream of Hinduism, which worships the godVishnu as the Supreme Lord (Svayam Bhagavan). As well as Vishnu himself, followers of the denomination also worship Vishnu's ten incarnations (theDashavatara).[27] The two most-worshipped incarnations of Vishnu are Krishna (especially withinKrishnaism as the Supreme)[28] and Rama, whose stories are told in theMahabharata and theRamayana, respectively. The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic and devoted to meditative practice and ecstatic chanting.[29] Vaishnavism is characterised by diverse adherence to a number of saints, temples, and scriptures.[30]
AmongHistorical Vishnuism are known theBhagavatism,Pancharatra, andVaikhanasa traditions.
The major living Vaishnavasampradayas include:[27][31]
Minor and regional Vaishnavite schools and the principalacharyas connected with them are:[31]
Shaivas or Shaivites are those who primarily worshipShiva as the supreme god, bothimmanent andtranscendent. Shaivism embraces at the same timemonism (specificallynondualism) anddualism. To Shaivites, Shiva is both with and without form; he is the Supreme Dancer,Nataraja; and islinga, without beginning or end. Shiva is sometimes depicted as the fierce godBhairava. Saivists are more attracted toasceticism than devotees of other Hindu sects and may be found wandering India withashen faces, performing self-purification rituals.[29] They worship in the temple and practice yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within.[30]
The major schools of Shaivism include:[5]
Other branches:
Shaktas worship the Mother Goddess asShakti, in different forms. These forms may includeKali,Parvati/Durga,Lakshmi andSaraswati. The branch of Hinduism that worships the goddess, known as Devi, is calledShaktism. Followers of Shaktism recognizeShakti as the supreme power of the universe. Devi is often depicted asParvati (the consort of Shiva) or asLakshmi (the consort of Vishnu). She is also depicted in other manifestations, such as the protectiveDurga or the violentKali. Shaktism is closely related with Tantric Hinduism, which teaches rituals and practices for purification of the mind and body.[29]
Animal sacrifice of cockerels, goats and to a lesser extent water buffaloes is practiced by Shakta devotees, mainly at temples of goddesses such as Bhavani or Kali.[39][40]
The main traditions are:
The Goddess-centric traditions within Kashmir Shaivism areTrika andKubjika.
Smartas treat all deities as the same, and their temples include five deities (Pancopasana) orPanchadevata as personalsaguna (divine with form) manifestation of thenirguna (divine without form) Absolute, theBrahman. The choice of the nature of God is up to the individual worshiper since different manifestations of God are held to be equivalent. It is nonsectarian as it encourages the worship of any personal god along with others such as Ganesha, Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu, Surya.[29]
The Smarta Tradition accepts two concepts of Brahman, which are thesaguna brahman – the Brahman with attributes, andnirguna brahman – the Brahman without attributes.[41] Thenirguna Brahman is the unchanging Reality, however, thesaguna Brahman is posited as a means to realizing thisnirguna Brahman.[42] In this tradition, the concept of thesaguna Brahman is considered to be a useful symbolism and means for those who are still on their spiritual journey. However, the saguna concept is abandoned by the fully enlightened once they realize the identity of their own soul with that of thenirguna Brahman.[42] A Smarta may choose anysaguna deity (istadevata) such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, Surya, Ganesha or any other, and this is viewed in Smarta Tradition as an interim step towards meditating on Om and true nature of supreme reality, thereby realizing thenirguna Brahman and its equivalence to one's own Atman, as inAdvaita Vedanta.[43]
The movement is credited toShankara, who is regarded as the greatest teacher[44][45] and reformer of the Smarta.[46][45] According to Hiltebeitel, Shankara established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revivedsmarta tradition.[47] TheSringeri Sharada Peetham in Karnataka, believed by its members to have been founded by Shankara, is still the centre of the Smarta sect for its followers. Smartas follow 4 other major Mathas namely,Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham,Puri Govardan Math,Dwaraka Sharada Peetham, andJyotir Muth. All Mathas are headed by Sankaracharyas.[44][45]
The traditions are:
Panchayatana puja, also known asPancha Devi Deva Puja is a system ofpuja (worship) within theSmartasampradaya.[48]
Halbfass states that, although traditions such asShaivism andVaishnavism may be regarded as "self-contained religious constellations",[49] there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives"[49] of each tradition which indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon".[49] It is common to find Hindus revering Shiva, Vishnu and Shakti, and celebrating festivals related to them at different times of the year. Temples often feature more than one of them, and Hinduism is better understood as polycentric theosophy that leaves the choice of deity and ideas to the individual.[9]
The key concepts and practises of the four major denominations of Hinduism can be compared as below:
| Shaiva Traditions | Vaishnava Traditions | Shakti Traditions | Smarta Traditions | Srauta Traditions | References | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Scriptural authority | Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas | Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas | Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas | Vedas and Upanishads | Vedas | [24][50] |
| Supreme deity | God Shiva | God Vishnu | Goddess Devi | None | None | [51][52] |
| Creator | Shiva | Vishnu | Devi | Brahman principle | Brahman principle | [51][53] |
| Avatar | Major | Key concept | Significant | Minor | Minor | [24][54][55] |
| Monastic life | Recommends | Accepts | Accepts | Recommends | Accepts (with exceptions) | [24][56][57] |
| Rituals,Bhakti | Affirms[58][59][60] | Affirms | Affirms | Optional[61] | Affirms | [62] |
| Ahimsa and Vegetarianism | Recommends,[58] Optional | Affirms | Optional | Affirms except for sacrificial occasions | Affirms except for sacrificial occasions | [63][64] |
| Free will,Maya,Karma | Affirms | Affirms | Affirms | Affirms | Affirms | [51] |
| Metaphysics | Brahman (Shiva),Atman (Soul, Self) | Brahman (Vishnu), Atman | Brahman (Devi), Atman | Brahman, Atman | Brahman, Atman, Karma, Dharma | [51] |
| Epistemology (Pramana) | 1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Reliable testimony 4. Self-evident[65] | 1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Reliable testimony | 1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Reliable testimony | 1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Comparison and analogy 4. Postulation, derivation 5. Negative/cognitive proof 6. Reliable testimony | 1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Comparison and analogy 4. Postulation, derivation 5. Negative/cognitive proof 6. Reliable testimony | [66][67][68] |
| Philosophy | Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita | Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita | Shakti-advaita | Advaita | Purva Mimamsa | [69][70] |
| Salvation (Soteriology) | Jivanmukta, Charya-Kriyā-Yoga-Jnana[71] | Videhamukti, Yoga, champions householder life | Bhakti, Tantra, Yoga | Jivanmukta, Advaita, Yoga, champions monastic life | Videhamukti, Yoga, |
The Suryaites or Sauras are followers of a Hindu denomination that started in Vedic tradition, and worshipSurya as the main visible form of theSaguna Brahman. The Saura tradition was influential in South Asia, particularly in the west, north and other regions, with numerous Surya idols and temples built between 800 and 1000 CE.[74][75] TheKonark Sun Temple was built in the mid 13th century.[76] During the iconoclasm of Islamic invasions and Hindu–Muslim wars, the temples dedicated to Sun-god were among those desecrated, images smashed and the resident priests of Saura tradition were killed, statesAndré Wink.[77][78] The Surya tradition of Hinduism declined in the 12th and 13th century CE and today remains as a very small movement except in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh.[citation needed] Sun worship has continued to be a dominant practice in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh in the form ofChhath Puja which is considered the primary festival of importance in these regions.
Ganapatism is a Hindu denomination in whichGanesha is worshipped as the main form of theSaguna Brahman. This sect was widespread and influential in the past and has remained important inMaharashtra.[citation needed]
Hinduism dominated the island ofJava andSumatra until the late 16th century, when a vast majority of the population converted toIslam. Only theBalinese people who formed a majority on the island ofBali, retained this form of Hinduism over the centuries. Theologically, Balinese or Indonesian Hinduism is closer to Shaivism than to other major sects of Hinduism. The adherents considerAcintya the supreme god, and all other gods as his manifestations.
The term "Agama Hindu Dharma", the endonymousIndonesian name for "Indonesian Hinduism" can also refer to the traditional practices inKalimantan,Sumatra,Sulawesi and other places in Indonesia, where people have started to identify and accept theiragamas as Hinduism or Hindu worship has been revived. The revival of Hinduism in Indonesia has given rise to a national organisation, theParisada Hindu Dharma.
Shrauta communities are very rare in India, the most well known being the ultra-orthodoxNambudiri Brahmins ofKerala. They follow the "Purva-Mimamsa" (earlier portion of Vedas) in contrast to Vedanta followed by other Brahmins. They place importance on the performance of Vedic Sacrifice (Yajna).[citation needed]
Kaumaram is a sect of Hindus, especially found in South India and Sri Lanka whereKartikeya is worshipped as the Supreme God. The worshippers of Kartikeya are called Kaumaras.[citation needed]
Dattatreya Sampradaya is a Hindu denomination associated with the worship ofDattatreya as the supreme god. This denomination found in Indian states likeMaharashtra,Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka,Goa,Telangana,Gujarat,Madhya Pradesh,Rajasthan andUttarakhand. Dattatreya is often considered as an avatara of three Hindu gods Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, collectively known as theTrimurti.Main traditions linked with Dattatreya Sampradaya are:
The Sant Mat was a group of reformerpoet-sants and their adherents within Hinduism during the 14th–17th centuries who had desire forreligious pluralism and non-ritualistic spirituality.[80] Due toKabir's affiliation with VaishnaviteRamanandi Sampradaya and certain aspects of the creed, the Sant Mat is sometimes seen as part of Vaishnavism.[27] Among its living traditions are:
The Hindunew religious movements that arose in the 19th to 20th century include:[83]
Sarna are sacred groves in theIndian religious traditions of theChota Nagpur Plateau region in the states ofJharkhand,Bihar,Assam andChhattisgarh.[111] Followers of these rituals primarily belong to theMunda,Bhumij,Kharia,Baiga,Ho,Kurukh andSantal.[citation needed] According to local belief, aGram deoti or village deity resides in the sarna, where sacrifice is offered twice a year. Their belief system is called "Sarnaism", "Sarna Dharma" or "Religion of the Holy Woods".[112]
The practice is also known asKirat Veda,[113][114]Kirat-Ko Veda[115] orKirat Ko Ved.[116] According to some scholars, such as Tom Woodhatch, it is shamanism, animistic religion or blend ofshamanism,animism (e.g.,ancestor worshiping ofYuma Sammang/Tagera Ningwaphumang and Paruhang/Sumnima),[117] and Shaivism.[118]
The Indo-AryanKalash people in Pakistan traditionally practice an indigenous religion which some authors characterise as an archaic form of ancient Indo-Aryan religion.[119][120][121] TheNuristanis ofAfghanistan andPakistan until the late 19th century had followed a religion which was described as a form of ancient Hinduism.[122][123][124]
The contemporary Sant Mat is a 19th-century origin movement.[125] Scholars are divided as to whether to call Radha Soami a 1)Sikh-derived or 2) Hindu–Sikh-synthesed or 3) independent version of the medievalSant Mat as new universal religion.[126]
Slavic, Russian, Peterburgian Vedism or simply Vedism[127][128] are terms used to describe one of the earliest branch ofSlavic Native Faith ("Rodnovery")—contemporary indigenous development ofVedic forms of religion inRussia, especially ofSaint Petersburg's communities, otherSlavic countries, and generally all thepost-Soviet states. The word "Vedism" comes from the verb "to know" (vedatʼ)—a semantic root which is shared inSlavic andSanskrit languages alike.[129]
Slavic Vedism involves the worship of Vedic gods, characterised by its use of indigenous Slavic rituals and Slavic names for the deities, distinguishing from other groups which have maintained a stronger bond with modern Hinduism, althoughKrishnaite groups often identify themselves as "Vedic" too. Also some syncretic groups within Slavic Native Faith (Slavic Neopaganism) use the term "Vedism".[130]
The Bhakti movement was atheistic devotional trend that originated in the seventh-centuryTamil south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.[131] It swept over east and north India from the fifteenth-century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.[131][132] The Bhakti movement regionally developed as Hindu denominations around different gods and goddesses, such asVaishnavism (Vishnu),Shaivism (Shiva),Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), andSmartism.[1][7][133] The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging fromtheistic dualism ofDvaita to absolutemonism ofAdvaita Vedanta.[131][134] Scriptures of the Bhakti movement include theBhagavad Gita,Bhagavata Purana andPadma Purana.[135][136]
As part of the legacy of the Alvars, fiveVaishnava philosophical traditions (sampradayas) has developed at the later stages.[137]
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Hindu philosophy is traditionally divided into sixāstika (Sanskrit:आस्तिक "orthodox") schools of thought,[138] ordarśanam (दर्शनम्, "view"), which accept theVedas as the supreme revealed scriptures. The schools are:
Thenāstika/heterodox schools are (in chronological order):
However,medieval philosophers likeVidyāraṇya classifiedIndian philosophy into sixteen schools, where schools belonging toShaiva,Pāṇini andRaseśvara thought are included with others, and the threeVedantic schoolsAdvaita,Vishishtadvaita andDvaita (which had emerged as distinct schools by then) are classified separately.[139]
InHindu history, the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in theGupta period "golden age" of Hinduism. With the disappearance of Vaisheshika and Mimamsa, it was obsolete by the later Middle Ages and modern times, when the various sub-schools of Vedanta began to rise to prominence as the main divisions of religious philosophy, as follows:[140][141]
Nyaya survived into the 17th century asNavya Nyaya "Neo-Nyaya", while Samkhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta.
Animal sacrifice is still practiced widely and is an important ritual in popular Hinduism
The Kalasha ... religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits and has been related to the religion of the Ancient Greeks, who mythology says are the ancestors of the contemporary Kalash... However, it is much more likely, given their Indo-Aryan language, that the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies.
Living in the high mountain valleys, the Nuristani retained their ancient culture and their religion, a form of ancient Hinduism with many customs and rituals developed locally. Certain deities were revered only by one tribe or community, but one deity was universally worshipped by all Nuristani as the Creator, the Hindu god Yama Raja, calledimr'o orimra by the Nuristani tribes.
Prominent sites include Hadda, near Jalalabad, but Buddhism never seems to have penetrated the remote valleys of Nuristan, where the people continued to practise an early form of polytheistic Hinduism.
Up until the late nineteenth century, many Nuristanis practised a primitive form of Hinduism. It was the last area in Afghanistan to convert to Islam—and the conversion was accomplished by the sword.
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