Hindu art encompasses the artistic traditions and styles culturally connected toHinduism and have a long history of religious association with Hindu scriptures, rituals and worship.
Hinduism, with its1.2 billion followers, is the religion of about 15-16 % of the world's population[1] and as such the culture that ensues it is full of different aspects of life that are effected by art. There are 64 traditional arts that are followed that start with the classics of music and range all the way to the application and adornment of jewellery.[2] Since religion and culture are inseparable with Hinduism recurring symbols such as the gods and their reincarnations, thelotus flower, extra limbs, and even the traditional arts make their appearances in many sculptures, paintings, music, and dance.
It is thought that before the adoption of stone sculpture, there was an older tradition of using clay or wood to represent Indian deities, which, because of their inherent fragility, have not survived.[5]
There are no remains of such representations, but an indirect testimony appears in the some punch-marked coins of theMauryan Empire, as well as the coinage of theIndo-Greek kingAgathocles, who issued coins with the image of Indian deities, together with legends in the Brami script, circa 180-190 BCE.[4][3] The deity illustrated in some of thepunch-marked coins of the 3rd century BCE is now generally thought to beBalarama, with his attributes: a plough in his raised left hand and pestle in his raised right hand.[6] Some of the first known illustrations of proto-Hindu deities appearing on Hellenistic coinage, as witnessed by the Indo-Greeks in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent, are generally identified asBalarama-Samkarshana andVasudeva-Krishna, together with their attributes, especially theGada mace and theplow for the former, and theVishnu attributes of theShankha (a pear-shaped case or conch) and theSudarshana Chakra wheel for the latter.[4][7] According to Bopearachchi, the headdress is actually a misrepresentation of a shaft with a half-moon parasol on top (chattra), as seen in later statues ofbodhisattvas inMathura. It is therefore thought that images predating the coins (but now lost) served as models to the engravers.[7]
Early Hindu reliefs
The Katra architrave, possibly representingBrahmins and the cult of theShivaLinga, Mathura, circa 100 BCE[8]
Worship of Shiva Linga by Gandharvas, 2nd-1st century BCE
The dancing girls on some of the coins of Agathocles andPantaleon are also sometimes considered as representations ofLakshmi, the consort of Vishnu,Subhadra, the sister ofKrishna andBalarama, and alsoVasudhara, a goddess of abundance and fortune for Buddhists.[7]
By 100 BCE in theart of Mathura, reliefs start to represent more complex scenes, defining, according to Sonya Rhie Quintanilla, an age of "iconic diversification and narrative maturation." Some reliefs, such as the "Katra architrave," may representBrahmins and the cult of theShivaLinga. These reliefs fromMathura are dated to circa 100 BCE.[8] Although few remain, some are considered as refined and intricate as the Buddhist narrative reliefs ofBharhut,Sanchi orAmaravati.[9][10]
TheCaturvyūha Viṣṇu:Vāsudeva and other members of theVrishni clan.[11] Vāsudeva (avatar ofVishnu) is fittingly in the center with his heavy decorated mace on the side and holding a conch, his elder brotherBalarama to his right under a serpent hood, his sonPradyumna to his left (lost), and his grandsonAniruddha on top.[11][12] 2nd century CE, Mathura Museum.
What we call "Hindu art" started to develop fully from the 1st to the 2nd century CE, and there are only very few examples of artistic representation before that time.[13] Hindu art was inspired by the earlier Buddhist art of Mathura. The three Vedic godsIndra,Brahma andSurya were first depicted in Buddhist sculpture as attendants in scenes commemorating the life of the Buddha, such as his birth, hisdescent from the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, or his retreat in theIndrasala Cave.[13] During the time of the Kushans, Hindu art progressively incorporated a profusion of original Hindu stylistic and symbolic elements, in contrast with the general balance and simplicity of Buddhist art. The differences appear in iconography rather than in style.[14] It is generally considered that it is in Mathura, during the time of the Kushans, that the Brahmanical deities were given their standard form:
"To a great extent it is in the visual rendering of the various gods and goddesses of theistic Brahmanism that the Mathura artist displayed his ingenuity and inventiveness at their best. Along with almost all the major cult icons Visnu, Siva, Surya, Sakti and Ganapati, a number of subsidiary deities of the faith were given tangible form in Indian art here for the first time in an organized manner. In view of this and for the variety and multiplicity of devotional images then made, the history of Mathura during the first three centuries of the Christian era, which coincided with the rule of the Kusanas, can very well be called revolutionary in the development of Brahmanical sculpture."
— Pran Gopal Paul and Debjani Paul, inBrahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations[15]
Some sculptures during this period suggest that the concept of theavatar was starting to emerge, as images of"Chatur-vyuha" (the four emanations ofVishnu) are appearing.[16] The famous "Caturvyūha Viṣṇu" statue in Mathura Museum is an attempt to show in one compositionVāsudeva (as an avatar of Vishnu) together with the other members of theVrishni clan of thePancharatra system:Samkarsana,Pradyumna andAniruddha, withSamba missing, Vāsudeva being the central deity from whom the others emanate.[11][12] The back of the relief is carved with the branches of aKadamba tree, symbolically showing the relationship being the different deities.[11] The depiction of Vishnu was stylistically derived from the type of the ornate Bodhisattvas, with rich jewelry and ornate headdress.[17]
Sun GodSurya, also revered in Buddhism, Kushan Period
ShivaLinga worshipped by Indo-Scythian,[18] or Kushan devotees, 2nd century CE
War GodKarttikeya and Fire GodAgni, Kushan Period, 1st century CE
The Hindu God Shiva, 3rd century CE. Mathura or Ahichchhatra
A terracotta statue of VishnuCaturanana ("Four-Armed"), using the attributes ofVāsudeva-Krishna, with the addition of anaureole around the head (5th century CE).Uttar Pradesh.[20]
Visnu Visvarupa: Vishnu as three-headed cosmic creator, showing Vishnu with a human head, flanked by his avatars (the head of a lion forNarasimha, the muzzle of a boar forVaraha) with a multitude of beings on his aureole, symbol of the emanations resulting from his creative power. 5th century CE, Mathura.[20]
The first known creation of the Guptas related to Hindu art at Mathura isan inscribed pillar recording the installation of twoShivaLingas in 380 CE underChandragupta II, Samudragupta's successor.[21]
Until the 4th century CE, the worship ofVāsudeva-Krishna seems to have been much more important than that of Vishnu.[20] During the Gupta period, statues focusing on the worship ofVishnu start to appear, replacing earlier statues now attributed toVāsudeva-Krishna.[20] Many of the statues of Vishnu appearing from the 4th century CE, such as theVishnu Caturanana ("Four-Armed"), use the attributes and the iconography of Vāsudeva-Krishna, but add anaureole starting at the shoulders.[20]
Other statues of Vishnu show him as three-headed (with an implied fourth head in the back): theVisnu Vaikuntha Chaturmurti orChaturvyuha ("Four-Emanations") type, where Vishnu has a human head, flanked by the muzzle of a boar (his avatarVaraha) and the head of a lion (his avatarNarasimha), two of his most important and ancient avatars, laid out upon his aureole.[20] Recent scholarship considers that these "Vishnu" statues still show the emanation Vāsudeva Krishna as the central human-shaped deity, rather than the Supreme God Vishnu himself.[22][20]
A further variation is Vishnu as three-headed cosmic creator, theVisnu Visvarupa, showing Vishnu with a human head, again flanked by the muzzle of a boar the head of a lion, but with a multitude of beings on his aureole, symbol of the numerous creations and emanations resulting from his creative power.[20] These sculptures can be dated to the 5th century CE.[20]
In the 3rd-4th century CE,Lakshmi, which had been an independent Goddess of prosperity and luck, was incorporated in theVaishnava pantheon as the consort ofVishnu.[23] She thus became theHindu goddess of wealth, good fortune, prosperity and beauty.[24]
Oleograph by Raja Ravi Varma depicting a Shiva-centricPanchayatana
Oleograph by Raja Ravi Varma depicting Adi Shankara with disciples.
Karṇī-bharṇī lithograph by Ravi Varma Press depicting sins and punishments
"God posters", also known as framing pictures or calendar art, have emerged as a popular religious art genre and typically take the form of polychromelithographs. God posters are typically sold at local retailer's shops who in turn acquire them from wholesalers and publishing firms. God posters feature either "supernaturals" i.e. deities, saints, or sacred sites. The god posters evoke various devotional responses: those who most value god posters have developed a popular new "omnipraxy" to worship the posters. In domestic settings, god posters are vested and embellished by devotees who pass them down in their families. God posters are often placed next to other sacred images in forms of religious associations. Some god posters also reflect syncretism in which various cults have been amalgamated in modern times. Hindu saints, ancient or modern, who are the recepients of personality cults often have "personality posters" dedicated to them. Posters of sacred sites are sometimes depicted as maps or diagrams, which act asyantras in which a pilgrim-devotee can act or reenact the pilgrimage or journey mentally without the requisite physical movement.[26]
Learning music inHindu culture was a difficult task before the 20th century because of a necessary birth into agharana. After the early 1920s, integration of anyone wanting to learn classical Hindustani music could occur. An average ensemble normally includes a harmonium (which was brought to India by westerners), flute,veena,sitar, swaramandala, and a tabla. Many of the songs have strong themes that are related to theology such as a God's favorite pastimes, praise of any God whether they be in their original form from "the trinity" or the God's reincarnation, even stories of the creation of earth. Since instrumental music is a performance art it must follow strict guidelines that come from the treatise Natya Shastra.[27]
Dancing
Painting
Indian variety – the different types of folk paintings are proud for Indian culture which reflects beauty, tradition and heritage of India. There are many types of traditional paintings likeMadhubani, Rajsthani,Batik-Art, Patachitra, Gond, Mandala,Tribal Art Warli,Pithora, Bengali, Nirmal,Mysore,Tanjore paintings etc. which are the expressions of love, almighty, beauty, truth, tradition and art of each and every region of the India.
Forehead adornments
Rangoli: Making decorative floral and grain designs on the floor
Home and temple flower arranging
Personal grooming
Mosaic tiling
Bedroom arrangements
Creating music with water
Splashing and squirting with water
Secret mantras
Making flower garlands
Head adornments
Dressing
Drapery- The art of drapery has progressed over time. At one point both men and women wore dhotis but around the 14th century that changed and women's fashion became more intricate thus creating the sari. The drapery involved distinguishes the wearer's taste, occupation, and social status. The fabrics chosen range from cotton and synthetic fabrics all the way to silk. The fabric chosen depends on what occasion the wearer is going to use the item of clothing for. The draping of the sari comes in four different families:Marvari,Dravidian, Tribal, and Nivi. The family that the wearer chooses depends on the wearer's personal taste. The way an item of clothing is draped tells a lot about the wearer such as expression of creativity, progression of fashion, and where the user comes from.[28]
Costume decorations
Perfumery
Jewelry making
Magic and illusions
Ointments for charm and virility
Manual dexterity
Skills of cooking, eating and drinking
Beverage and dessert preparation
Sewing (making and mending garments)
Embroidery
Playing Vina and drum
Riddles and rhymes
Poetry games
Tongue twisters and difficult recitation
Literary recitation
Drama and story telling
Drama in its early essence was performed mainly by male troupes and was often integrated with many of the other traditional art forms such as poetry, music, and story telling. Since drama is a performance art it also follows theNatya Shastra guidelines.[29]
Verse composition games
Furniture caning
Erotic devices and knowledge of sexual arts
Crafting wooden furniture
Architecture and house construction
Distinguishing between ordinary and precious stones and metals
Metal-working
Gems and mining
Gardening and horticulture
Games of wager involving animals
Training parrots and mynas to speak
Hairdressing
Coding messages
Speaking in code
Knowledge of foreign languages and dialects
Making flower carriages
Spells, charms and omens
Making simple mechanical devices
Memory training
Game of reciting verses from hearing
Decoding messages
The meanings of words
Dictionary studies
Prosody and rhetoric
Impersonation
Artful dressing
Games of dice
The game of akarsha (a dice game played on a board)
The Natya Shastra is the leading guide to the Hindu performing arts. It is based on the Natya Veda, which no longer exists, and is roughly 37 chapters long with 6,000slokas.[30]
This city is solely dedicated to the production of artwork that is driven by the divine forces of Hinduism and these artworks are produced in a traditional fashion. The city is located in Eastern India (Orissa) and at one point this city was at risk of being completely destroyed due to British rule[citation needed]. During this time religion and the power of the kings were being overthrown and as such there was no reason for a city to exist whose main purpose is to supply traditional art. After this crisis occurred the city began to exclusively base itself on agriculture until a man named Jacnnath Mopatra led a training center for chitrakars. This revolution began production of the traditional art works once again in the 1950s and since the work being produced is known internationally.[31]
Extra Limbs-Extra limbs are seen on many of the Hindu deities in paintings and sculptures. The extra limbs show how much power the god is capable of because of their ability to perform many tasks at once. Such as the goddessSarasvati always has a minimum of four arms. Two of the arms will be playing a vina, representing the tuning of her knowledge, prayer beads in another hand and a scripture in another, both of these items are used to represent her devotion to her spirituality. Since she is the goddess of learning and art we see that she is very capable and very powerful in her area of expertise.[32]
Lotus Flower-The lotus flower is another common item seen constantly throughout the arts. The lotus flower represents purity, beauty, prosperity, fertility, and transcendence.[33] The reason the flower shows these attributes is due to the process in which the lotus flower goes through in order to blossom. The flower grows out of mud and rests atop the water in which it grows showing the hardship it must endure in order to achieve maximum beauty. Many deities have their name based on the Sanskrit word for lotus such as Lakshimi.[34]
^"The folk art typifies an older plastic tradition in clay and wood which was now put in stone, as seen in the massive Yaksha statuary which are also of exceptional value as models of subsequent divine images and human figures." inAgrawala, Vasudeva Sharana (1965).Indian Art: A history of Indian art from the earliest times up to the third century A. D. Prithivi Prakashan. p. 84.
^"Various attempts were made by numismatists to identify the human figures holding various attributes, appearing on the Imperial series of the punch-marked coins dated to the 3rd century BCE. The recent article by Wilfried Pieper has proposed a comprehensive survey of these coins with Vaiṣṇava divinities. The god most probably holding a plough in his raised left hand and pestle in his raised right hand is no doubt Balarāma." inBopearachchi, Osmund.Achaemenids and Mauryans: Emergence of Coins and Plastic Arts in India.
^abcdPaul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".East and West.39 (1/4):132–136, for the photograph p.138.ISSN0012-8376.JSTOR29756891.
^abSrinivasan, Doris (1979). "Early Vaiṣṇava Imagery: Caturvyūha and Variant Forms".Archives of Asian Art.32:39–40.ISSN0066-6637.JSTOR20111096.
^abPaul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".East and West.39 (1/4): 125.ISSN0012-8376.JSTOR29756891.
^Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".East and West.39 (1/4):111–143.ISSN0012-8376.JSTOR29756891.
^Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".East and West.39 (1/4): 128.ISSN0012-8376.JSTOR29756891.
^"Because they date to a period when the Pancharatra sect was most influential, these two images are probably best identified as Chaturvyuha (or Four-Vyuha) Vishnu. The central face is that of Vishnu’s most supreme, most transcendent vyuha, or emanation, known as Vasudeva. The subsequent, less abstract vyuhas, in the form of a lion and a boar, appear at either side, with another vyuha implied at the back. The positions of the lion and boar heads differ in these two pieces, indicating that there was some disagreement about the way the viewer should read such an icon.""Brooklyn Museum".www.brooklynmuseum.org.
^James G. Lochtefeld (2002).The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 385–386.ISBN978-0-8239-3179-8. Retrieved15 October 2016.; Quote: "[Goddess] Lakshmi is associated with wealth, good fortune, and prosperity, and is considered the embodiment of all these things."
^Smith, H. Daniel (1995). "Impact of "God Posters" on Hindus and Their Devotional Traditions". In Babb, Lawrence A.; Wadley, Susan S. (eds.).Media and the Transformation of Religion in South Asia.
![Shiva Linga worshipped by Indo-Scythian,[18] or Kushan devotees, 2nd century CE](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aShiva_Linga_worshipped_by_Kushan_devotees_Mathura_circa_2nd_century_CE.jpg)
.jpg)
![Three-faced Oesho, often identified with Shiva, on a coin of Huvishka[19]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCoinOfHuvishkaWithOisho.JPG)
![Pillar recording the installation of Shiva Lingas in the "year 61" (380 CE) during the rule of Chandragupta II.[25][21]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aInscribed_Pillar_-_Recording_Installation_of_Two_Shiva_Lingas_by_Udita_Acharya_in_the_Reign_of_Chandragupta_Vikramaditya_-_380_CE_-_Rangeshwar_Temple_-_ACCN_29-1931_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5503.JPG)
