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Islam andHinduism share some ritual practices, such asfasting andpilgrimage, but their views differ on various aspects. There are also hundreds of shared ritual spaces, called dargahs (literally, "doorway" or "threshold"), for Hindus and Muslims. These mark shrines for revered Muslim (frequentlySufi) leaders and are visited by both Muslims and Hindus. Their interaction has witnessed periods of cooperation andsyncretism, and periods ofreligious discrimination,intolerance, andviolence. As areligious minority in India, Muslims are part ofIndian culture and have lived alongside Hindus for over 13 centuries.

Despite the long-expressed contention that the origins of Muslim-Hindu tensions can be largely attributed to 19th centuryBritish colonial rule in India, the religious identities of Islam and Hinduism and the divisions between them existed long beforehand.^[2] Ajay Verghese argues that the Hindu-Muslim conflict in India can be better understood by analyzing the historical relationship between the two communities. He contends that precolonial India was marked by a fluidity of religious identity and that religious boundaries were not always clear-cut. This led to a degree of intermingling between Muslims and Hindus, but also created conditions for tension and conflict.^[3]

Interactions betweenMuslims andHindus began in the 7th century, after the advent ofIslam in theArabian Peninsula. These interactions were mainly by trade throughout theIndian Ocean. Historically, these interactions formed contrasting patterns in northern and southernIndia. While there is a history ofconquest and domination in the north, Hindu-Muslim relations inKerala andTamil Nadu have been peaceful.^[4] However, historical evidence has shown that violence had existed by the year 1700 AD.^[3]

In the 16th century, theMughal Empire was established. Under the Mughals, India experienced a period of relativestability and prosperity.^[5][6][7] TheMughals were known for their religious tolerance,^{[8][9][10][11]} and they actively patronized the arts and literature. During the Mughal era,Indian art and culture thrived, with the construction of grand monuments such as theTaj Mahal and theRed Fort. While the Mughals promoted religious harmony and cultural advancements and nurtured Hindu scholars, poets, and artists, facilitating a dynamic cultural interchange that enriched bothIslamic andHindu traditions, there were instances of religiousconflicts between the Mughals and the Rajput over control of territories.Aurangzeb was criticized for his policies of religious intolerance towards Hindus.^[1][12]

During the 18th to 20th centuries,India was ruled by the British, who introduced a policy ofdivide and rule to maintain their control over the country.^[13][14][15] The British also introduced a system of separate electorates, which further exacerbated the divide between the Hindu and Muslim communities.^[16][17] TheFirst Indian War of Independence in 1857, also known as the mutiny of 1857, was a major uprising against British rule in India. The rebellion was fueled by a range of grievances, includingeconomic exploitation, social and religious discrimination, and political oppression.^[18][19][20] While the rebellion was not solely based on religious tensions between Hindus and Muslims, these tensions did play a role in fueling the conflict. During the rebellion, there were instances of bothMuslim and Hindu soldiers and civilians fighting together against the British, as well as instances of conflict between the two communities.^[21][22][23]

There have been instances of syncretic cooperation on music with Islamic and Hindu themes. For example, the national poet ofBangladesh,Kazi Nazrul Islam, wrote many Islamic devotional songs for mainstreamBengali folk music.^[24] He also explored Hindu devotional music by composingShyama Sangeet, Durga Vandana, Sarswati Vandana,bhajans andkirtans, often merging Islamic and Hindu values. Nazrul's poetry and songs explored the philosophy of Islam and Hinduism.^[25]

• Alberuni's India
• Anti-Mosque campaign in India
• Criticism of Hinduism
• Din-i Ilahi
• Legend of Cheraman Perumals § The story of Tajuddeen
• Divisions of the world in Islam
• Hindu–Muslim unity
• Hinduism and other religions
• Islam and other religions
• Islam in South Asia
• Sufism in India
• Violence against Muslims in India

Wikiquote has quotations related toIslamic–Hindu relations.

Relations

• Friedrichs, Jörg (2018),Hindu–Muslim Relations: What Europe Might Learn from India, Taylor & Francis,ISBN 978-0-429-86207-6
• Jain, Meenakshi (2010),Parallel Pathways: Essays on Hindu-Muslim Relations 1707–1857, Konark Publishers,ISBN 9788122007831
• Sikand, Yoginder (2004),Muslims in India Since 1947: Islamic Perspectives on Inter-Faith Relations, Routledge,ISBN 978-0415314862

Islam in South Asia

• Holt, Peter M. (1977), Peter Malcolm Holt; Ann K. S. Lambton; Bernard Lewis (eds.),The Cambridge History of Islam (New ed.), Cambridge University Press,ISBN 978-0521291378
• Khalidi, Omar (2009), Shiping Hua (ed.),Islam and democratization in Asia, Cambria Press,ISBN 978-1604976328
• Metcalf, Barbara D. (2009), Barbara D. Metcalf (ed.),Islam in South Asia in Practice, Princeton University Press,ISBN 978-0691044200

Communal violence

• Wilkinson, Steven I. (2006),Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India, Cambridge University Press,ISBN 978-0521536059
• Reference, Blackwell (1999). Townson, Duncan (ed.). "Indian communal massacres (1946–7)".Blackwell Reference.doi:10.1111/b.9780631209379.1999.x.ISBN 9780631209379.
• Markovits, Claude."India from 1900 to 1947". Mass Violence.Org.
• D'Costa, Bina (2010),Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia, Routledge,ISBN 978-0415565660
• Ghosh, Partha S. (2004), Ranabir Samaddar (ed.),Peace Studies: An Introduction To the Concept, Scope, and Themes, SAGE,ISBN 978-0761996606
• Hussain, Monirul (2009), Sibaji Pratim Basu (ed.),The Fleeing People of South Asia: Selections from Refugee Watch, Anthem, p. 261,ISBN 978-8190583572
• Berglund, Henrik (2011), Galina Lindquist; Don Handelman (eds.),Religion, Politics, and Globalization: Anthropological Approaches, Berghahn, p. 105,ISBN 978-1845457716
• Smith, Glenn (2005), Asvi Warman Adam; Dewi Fortuna Anwar (eds.),Violent Internal Conflicts in Asia Pacific: Histories, Political Economies, and Policies, Yayasan Obor,ISBN 9789794615140
• Pandey, Gyanendra (2005),Routine violence: nations, fragments, histories, Stanford University Press,ISBN 978-0804752640
• Ghassem-Fachandi, Parvis (2012),Pogrom in Gujarat: Hindu Nationalism and Anti-Muslim Violence in India, Princeton University Press, p. 2,ISBN 978-0691151779
• Metcalf, Barbara (2013), Deana Heath; Chandana Mathur (eds.),Communalism and Globalization in South Asia and its Diaspora, Routledge,ISBN 978-0415857857

General

• Brown, J. M. (1994),Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy, The Short Oxford History of the Modern World (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press,ISBN 978-0-19-873113-9
• Chandra, Satish (2007).History of Medieval India. New Delhi: Orient Longman.ISBN 978-81-250-3226-7.
• Chua, Amy (2007).Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance – and Why They Fall. Doubleday.ISBN 978-0-385-51284-8.
• Fowler, Jeaneane D. (2002),Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press,ISBN 978-1898723936
• Metcalf, Barbara D.;Metcalf, Thomas R. (2006),A Concise History of Modern India (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press,ISBN 978-0-521-68225-1

• Hinduism and Islam

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