Ahillfort is a type offortified refuge or defended settlement located to exploit a rise in elevation for defensive advantage. They are typical of the lateEuropean Bronze Age andIron Age. Some were used in the post-Roman period. The fortification usually follows the contours of a hill and consists of one or more lines ofearthworks or stoneramparts, withstockades ordefensive walls, and external ditches. If enemies were approaching, the inhabitants would spot them from a distance.
Prehistoric Europe saw a growing population. It has been estimated that in about 5000 BC, during the Neolithic period, between 2 million and 5 million people lived in Europe; in the Late Iron Age, Europe had an estimated population of around 15 to 30 million. OutsideGreece andItaly, which were more densely populated, the vast majority of settlements in the Iron Age were small, with perhaps no more than 50 inhabitants. Hillforts were the exception, and were the home of up to 1,000 people. With the emergence ofoppida in the Late Iron Age, settlements could reach as large as 10,000 inhabitants.[3] As the population increased, so did the complexity of prehistoric societies. Around 1100 BC hillforts emerged and in the following centuries spread through Europe. They served a range of purposes and were variously tribal centres, defended places, foci of ritual activity, and places of production.[4]
Hillforts were frequently occupied by conquering armies, but on other occasions the forts were destroyed, the local people forcibly evicted, and the forts left derelict. For example,Solsbury Hill was sacked and deserted during theBelgic invasions of southern Britain in the 1st century BC. Abandoned forts were sometimes reoccupied and refortified under renewed threat of foreign invasion, such as during theDukes' Wars inLithuania, and the successive invasions of Britain byRomans,Saxons andVikings.
Celtic hillforts developed in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age, roughly the start of thefirst millennium BC, and were used in manyCeltic areas ofcentral andwestern Europe until the Roman conquest. They are most common during later periods:
TheHallstatt culture andLa Tène culture originated in what is now southern Germany, Switzerland, Austria,Slovakia and the Czech Republic. The predominant form of rampart construction waspfostenschlitzmauer, orKelheim-style. During the Hallstatt C period, hillforts became the dominant settlement type in the west of Hungary.[6]Julius Caesar described the large Late Iron Age hillforts he encountered during his campaigns inGaul asoppida. By this time the larger ones had become more like cities than fortresses and many were assimilated as Roman towns.
The ramparts of the multivallateBritish Camp in Herefordshire
The reason for the emergence of hillforts in Britain, and their purpose, has been a subject of debate. It has been argued that they could have been military sites constructed in response to invasion from continental Europe, sites built by invaders, or a military reaction to social tensions caused by an increasing population and consequent pressure on agriculture. The dominant view, since the 1960s, has been that the increasing use of iron led to social changes in Britain. Deposits of iron ore were not located in the same places as the tin and copper ore necessary to make bronze and, as a result, trading patterns shifted and the old elites lost their economic and social status. Power passed into the hands of a new group of people.[7] ArchaeologistBarry Cunliffe believes that population increase also played a role and has stated "[the forts] provided defensive possibilities for the community at those times when the stress [of an increasing population] burst out into open warfare. But I wouldn't see them as having been built because there was a state of war. They would be functional as defensive strongholds when there were tensions and undoubtedly some of them were attacked and destroyed, but this was not the only, or even the most significant, factor in their construction".[8]
Hillforts in Britain are known from theBronze Age, but the great period of hillfort construction was during the Celtic Iron Age, between 700 BC and theRoman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. The Romans occupied some forts, such as the military garrison atHod Hill, and the temple atBrean Down, but others were destroyed and abandoned. Partially articulated remains of between 28 and 40 men, women and children atCadbury Castle were thought by the excavator[9] to implicate the Cadbury population in a revolt in the 70's AD (roughly contemporary with that of Boudicca in the East of England), although this has been questioned by subsequent researchers.[10][11] However, the presence of barracks on the hilltop in the decades following the conquest suggest an ongoing struggle to suppress local dissent.
Maiden Castle in Dorset is the largest hillfort in England. Where Roman influence was less strong, such as uninvaded Ireland and unsubdued northern Scotland, hillforts were still built and used for several more centuries.
There are over 2,000 Iron Age hillforts known in Britain, of which nearly 600 are in Wales.[12]Danebury inHampshire, is the most thoroughly investigated Iron Age hillfort in Britain, as well as the most extensively published.[13]
Alidar view of Camp Knowe Iron Age Hillfort in Northumberland.
Some Iron Age hillforts were also incorporated into medieval frontier earthworks. For exampleOffa's Dyke, alinear earthwork generally dated to the 9th century CE, makes use of the west and south-west ramparts ofLlanymynech hillfort.[16] Similarly the hillfort atOld Oswestry was incorporated into the early medievalWat's Dyke.[17] TheWansdyke was a newlinear earthwork connected to the existing hillfort atMaes Knoll, which defined the Celtic-Saxon border in south-west England during the period 577–652 CE.
Some hillforts were re-occupied by theAnglo-Saxons during the period ofViking raids.King Alfred established a network of coastal hillforts and lookout posts inWessex, linked by aHerepath, or military road, which enabled his armies to cover Viking movements at sea. For example, seeDaw's Castle andBattle of Cynwit.
It has been suggested on reasonable evidence that many so-called hillforts were just used to pen in cattle, horses, or other domesticated animals. The large sprawling examples atBindon Hill andBathampton Down are more than 50 acres (20 ha). Even those that were defensive settlements in the Iron Age were sometimes used for corralling animals in later periods. For example, seeConey's Castle,Dolebury Warren andPilsdon Pen. However, it is difficult to prove that people definitely did not dwell there, as lack of evidence is not proof of absence.
Exterior view of the RingfortGrianan of Aileach situated in County Donegal
Bronze Age and Iron Age hillforts are widely found in Ireland,[18] with more than 500 identified in Ireland and Northern Ireland.[19] They are large circular structures between 1 and 40 acres (most commonly 5–10 acres) in size, enclosed by a stone wall or earthen rampart or both. These would have been important tribal centres where the chief or king of the area would live with his extended family and support themselves by farming and renting cattle to their underlings.
About 12 are multivallate, distinguished by multiple ramparts or a largecounterscarp (outer bank). The imposing example at Mooghaun is defended by multiple stone walls.
One must be careful to not confuse a hillfort with a medieval 'ringfort', a common archaeological feature across the whole island of Ireland, of which over 40,000 examples are known;[20] one source claims there may be 10,000 undiscovered ringforts.[21]
InGalicia,Asturias,Cantabria,Basque Country,province of Ávila andNorthern Portugal acastro is a fortified pre-Roman Iron Age village, usually located on a hill or some naturally easy defendable place.[22] The larger hillforts are also calledcitanias,cividades orcidás (English:cities).They were located on hilltops, which allowed tactical control over the surrounding countryside and provided natural defences. They usually had access to a spring or small creek to provide water; some even had large reservoirs to use duringsieges. Typically, a castro had one to five stone and earth walls, which complemented the natural defences of the hill. The buildings inside, most of them circular in shape, some rectangular, were about 3.5–15 m (11–49 ft) long; they were made out of stone with thatch roofs resting on a wood column in the centre of the building. In the majoroppida there were regular streets, suggesting some form of central organization. Castros vary in area from less than a hectare to some 50 hectare ones, and most were abandoned after the Roman conquest of the territory.
Many of themegaliths from the Bronze Age such asmenhirs anddolmens, which are frequently located near the castros, also pre-date the Celts in Portugal,Asturias andGalicia as well as in Atlantic France, Britain and Ireland. These megaliths were probably reused in syncretic rituals by the CelticDruids.
TheCeltiberian people occupied an inland region in central northern Spain, straddling the upper valleys of theEbro,Douro andTajo. They built hillforts, fortified hilltop towns andoppida, includingNumantia.
During theMigration Period (300-600 CE), a large number of hilltop settlements were established both on Roman imperial territory and the lands of theGermanic peoples. However, the term embraces many very different settlements in high locations. Fortifications protected at least a few Germanic settlements. Unlike the Romans, however, the Germanii did not use mortar for their construction at that time. Among the best-known hill settlements in Germany are theRunder Berg nearBad Urach and theGelbe Burg nearDittenheim.
In Sweden, hillforts are fortifications from the Iron Age which may have had several functions. They are usually located on the crests of hills and mountains making use of precipices and marshes which worked as natural defences. The crests' more accessible parts were defended with walls of stone and outer walls in the slopes beneath are common. Round and closed, so-calledring forts are common even on flat ground. The walls often have remaining parts of stone, which were probably the support of pales. They often have well delineated gateways, the gates of which were probably of wood. Hillforts with strong walls are often located beside old trade routes and have an offensive character, whereas others are reclusive and were weakly fortified, probably only for hiding during raids.
Many forts, located centrally in densely populated areas, were permanently settled strongholds and can show traces of settlements both inside and outside. Older place names containing the elementsten/stein were usually hillforts.
In Sweden, there are 1,100 known hillforts with a strong concentration on the northern west coast and in easternSvealand. InSödermanland there are 300, inUppland 150,Östergötland 130, and 90 to 100 in each ofBohuslän andGotland.
A ruins of the Unikonlinna hillfort inJanakkala, Finland
TheFinnish word forhillfort islinnavuori (plurallinnavuoret), meaningfort hill orcastle hill, or alternativelymuinaislinna meaningancient fort, as opposed to barelinna which refers to medieval or later fortifications.
One special feature about the Finnish hillforts that while most of them are located these days within some distance from the sea, but earlier many of the forts were located by the sea, due topost-glacial rebound.
Finland has around 100 hillforts verified by excavations, and about 200 more suspected sites. The largest hillfort in Finland is theRapola Castle, other notable are theOld Castle of Lieto and the Sulkava hillfort.
TheEstonian word forhillfort islinnamägi (plurallinnamäed), meaninghillfort orhillburgh. There are several hundred hillforts or presumed ancient hillfort sites all over Estonia. Some of them, likeToompea in Tallinn orToomemägi in Tartu, are governance centres used since ancient times up until today. Some others, likeVarbola are historical sites nowadays.
Most likely the Estonian hillforts were in pre-Christian times administrative, economic and military centres ofEstonian tribes. Although some of them were probably used only during times of crisis and stood empty in peacetime (for example Soontagana in Koonga parish,Pärnu county).
Tērvete hillfort. MainSemigallian centre in the late Iron Age
The Latvian word forhillfort ispilskalns (plural:pilskalni), frompils (castle) andkalns (hill).
Hillforts inLatvia offered not only military and administrative functions but they were also cultural and economic centres of some regions. Latvian hillforts generally were a part of a complex consisting of the main fortress, the settlement around it, one or more burial fields and nearby ritual sites. The first hillforts in Latvia, such as Daugmale hillfort, appeared during theBronze Age.[23] Some were continuously inhabited until the lateIron Age.[24][25]
During the Roman Iron Age, some of the Latvian hillforts (likeĶivutkalns) were abandoned or became sparsely populated. A new period in hillfort development started during the 5th–8th centuries AD, when many new hillforts appeared, in most cases, along the main trades routes—rivers. During the 10th–11th centuries, some of the hillforts became military fortresses with strong fortifications (like hillforts inTērvete,Talsi,Mežotne). Some of them are considered important political centres of the local peoples, who in this period were subjects of serious social political changes. That period was known for unrest and military activities, as well as power struggles between local aristocracy. Most of the Latvian hillforts were destroyed or abandoned during theLivonian Crusade in the 13th century, but some were still used in the 14th century. In total, there are about 470 hillforts in Latvia.[24][25]
TheLithuanian word forhillfort ispiliakalnis (pluralpiliakalniai), frompilis (=castle) andkalnas (=mountain, hill).
Lithuania has hillforts dating from theBronze Age in the 1st millennium BC. The earliest examples in present-day Lithuania are found in the east of the country. Most of these forts were built or expanded between the fifth and fifteenth centuries, when they were used in the Dukes' Wars, and against theinvasion ofTeutonic Knights from the west. Most forts were located on the banks of a river, or a confluence where two rivers met. These fortifications were typically wooden, although some had additional stone or brick walls. The hill was usually sculpted for defensive purposes, with the top flattened and the natural slopes made steeper for defence.
During the early years ofGrand Duchy of Lithuaniapiliakalniai played a major role in conflicts with theLivonian Order and theTeutonic Knights. During this period the number ofpiliakalniai in use decreased, but those that remained had stronger fortifications. Two main defence lines developed: one along theNeman River (against the Teutonic Order) and another along the border withLivonia. Two other lines started to form, but did not fully develop. One was to protectVilnius, the capital, and the other line inSamogitia, was a major target for both orders. This territory separated the two Orders and prevented joint action between them and Pagan Lithuania.
As of 2017[update], according to theAtlas of Lithuanian Hillforts, there were 921 objects in Lithuania identified aspiliakalniai.[26] Mostpiliakalniai are located near rivers and are endangered by erosion: many have partlycollapsed as the flooded river has washed out the base of the hill. Now around 80 percent ofpiliakalniai are covered by forests and are hardly accessible to visitors.
InRussia,Belarus,Poland andUkraine, Iron Age and Early Medieval hillforts are calledgords orhords. They were the residence of local rulers, and provided for refuge in times of war.
In thePhilippines, theIvatan people of theBatanes Islands builtijang—fortified villages on top of natural hills and raised landforms near the coastlines. These were terraced into defensive ramparts with limited access points. Artifacts recovered from an ijang on the town of Savidug inSabtang has been dated to around 1200 CE.[27] These high rocky formations served as a refuge against attacking enemies.[28][29] Ijang were first described by the English freebooter CaptainWilliam Dampier when he visited the island ofIvuhos in 1687. During theSpanish colonial era, ijang were abandoned during theReducciones as the Ivatan population were moved into centralized towns in the lowlands.[30]
Among theMāori people, villages calledpā were often built on raised ground, like volcanic hills, headlands, and small islands (includingartificial islands). The slopes were terraced into defensive ramparts that were usually further protected bypalisades. Traditional pā took a variety of designs, ranging from a simple terraced hill, to complex fortified structures that include multiple rows of palisades and underground defensive and ambush points. Māori pā differed from European hillforts in that they also prominently incorporate foodstorage pits and often, water sources.[31][32] They survived until the colonial era and later types of pā were designed specifically for fighting with guns.[33]
^O'Driscoll, J., Hawkes, A. and O'Brien, W. (2019) 'The Irish hillfort', in Lock, G. and Ralston, I. (eds.) Hillforts: Britain, Ireland and the Nearer Continent - Papers from the Atlas of Hillforts of Britain and Ireland Conference, June 2017. Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 77-96. doi: 10.2307/j.ctvnb7r0b.https://hdl.handle.net/10468/12265
^Cowan, James (1955)."The Capture of Rua-pekapeka".The New Zealand Wars: A History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Volume I (1845–64). R.E. Owen, Wellington. p. 74. Retrieved11 November 2010.
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