Aherbal is a book containing the names and descriptions of plants, usually with information on their medicinal,tonic,culinary,toxic,hallucinatory,aromatic, ormagical powers, and thelegends associated with them.[1][2] A herbal may also classify the plants it describes,[3] may give recipes forherbal extracts,tinctures, orpotions, and sometimes includemineral and animalmedicaments in addition to those obtained from plants. Herbals were often illustrated to assistplant identification.[4]
Herbals were among the first literature produced inAncient Egypt,China,India, and Europe[5] as the medical wisdom of the day accumulated byherbalists,apothecaries andphysicians.[6] Herbals were also among the first books to be printed in both China and Europe. In Western Europe herbals flourished for two centuries following the introduction of moveable type (c. 1470–1670).[7]
In the late 17th century, the rise of modernchemistry,toxicology andpharmacology reduced the medicinal value of the classical herbal. As reference manuals forbotanical study and plant identification herbals were supplanted byFloras – systematic accounts of the plants found growing in a particular region, with scientifically accurate botanical descriptions,classification, and illustrations.[8] Herbals have seen a modest revival in theWestern world since the last decades of the 20th century, asherbalism and related disciplines (such ashomeopathy andaromatherapy) became popular forms ofalternative medicine.[9]
The use of plants for medicinal purposes, and their descriptions, dates back two to three thousand years.[10][11] The wordherbal is derived from themediaeval Latinliber herbalis ("book of herbs"):[2] it is sometimes used in contrast to the wordflorilegium, which is a treatise on flowers[12] with emphasis on their beauty and enjoyment rather than the herbal emphasis on their utility.[13] Much of the information found in printed herbals arose out oftraditional medicine and herbal knowledge that predated the invention of writing.[14]
Before the advent of printing, herbals were produced asmanuscripts, which could be kept asscrolls or loose sheets, or bound intocodices.[15] Early handwritten herbals were often illustrated with paintings and drawings. Like other manuscript books, herbals were "published" through repeated copying by hand, either by professional scribes or by the readers themselves. In the process of making a copy, the copyist would often translate, expand, adapt, or reorder the content. Most of the original herbals have been lost; many have survived only as later copies (of copies...), and others are known only through references from other texts.[16][17]
As printing became available, it was promptly used to publish herbals, the first printed matter being known asincunabula. In Europe, the first printed herbal withwoodcut (xylograph) illustrations, thePuch der Natur ofKonrad of Megenberg, appeared in 1475.[18] Metal-engraved plates were first used in about 1580.[19] As woodcuts and metal engravings could be reproduced indefinitely they were traded among printers: there was therefore a large increase in the number of illustrations together with an improvement in quality and detail but a tendency for repetition.[20]
As examples of some of the world's most important records and first printed matter, a researcher will find herbals scattered through the world's most famous libraries including theVatican Library in Rome, theBodleian Library in Oxford, theRoyal Library in Windsor, theBritish Library in London and the major continental libraries.
China is renowned for its traditional herbal medicines that date back thousands of years.[21][22] Legend has it that mythical EmperorShennong, the founder of Chinese herbal medicine, composed theShennong Bencao Jing orGreat Herbal in about 2700 BCE as the forerunner of all later Chinese herbals.[23] It survives as a copy made c. 500 CE and describes about 365 herbs.[24] High quality herbals andmonographs on particular plants were produced in the period to 1250 CE including: theZhenlei bencao written by Tang Shenwei in 1108, which passed through twelve editions until 1600; a monograph on thelychee by Cai Xiang in 1059 and one on the oranges of Wenzhhou by Han Yanzhi in 1178.[25] In 1406Ming dynasty prince Zhu Xiao (朱橚) published theJiuhuang Bencao illustrated herbal forfamine foods. It contained high quality woodcuts and descriptions of 414 species of plants of which 276 were described for the first time, the book pre-dating the first European printed book by 69 years. It was reprinted many times.[26] Other herbals includeBencao Fahui in 1450 by Xu Yong andBencao Gangmu of Li Shizhen in 1590.[27]
Traditional herbal medicine of India, known as Ayurveda, possibly dates back to the second millennium BCE tracing its origins to the holyHinduVedas and, in particular, theAtharvaveda.[28] One authentic compilation of teachings is by the surgeonSushruta, available in a treatise called Sushruta Samhita. This contains 184 chapters and description of 1120 illnesses, 700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources.[29] Other early works of Ayurveda include theCharaka Samhita, attributed toCharaka. This tradition, however is mostly oral. The earliest surviving written material which contains the works of Sushruta is theBower Manuscript—dated to the 4th century CE.[30]
An illustrated herbal published in Mexico in 1552,Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis ("Book of Medicinal Herbs of the Indies"), is written in theAztecNauhuatl language by a native physician,Martín Cruz. This is probably an extremely early account of the medicine of the Aztecs although the formal illustrations, resembling European ones, suggest that the artists were following the traditions of their Spanish masters rather than an indigenous style of drawing.[31] In 1570 Francisco Hernández (c.1514–1580) was sent from Spain to study the natural resources of New Spain (now Mexico). Here he drew on indigenous sources, including the extensive botanical gardens that had been established by the Aztecs, to record c. 1200 plants in hisRerum Medicarum of 1615.Nicolás Monardes’Dos Libros (1569) contains the first published illustration of tobacco.[32]
By about 2000 BCE, medicalpapyri in ancient Egypt included medical prescriptions based on plant matter and made reference to the herbalist's combination of medicines and magic for healing.[33]
The ancient Egyptian Papyrus Ebers is one of the earliest known herbals; it dates to 1550 BCE and is based on sources, now lost, dating back a further 500 to 2000 years.[4] The earliestSumerian herbal dates from about 2500 BCE as a copied manuscript of the 7th century BCE. InscribedAssyrian tablets dated 668–626 BCE list about 250 vegetable drugs: the tablets include herbal plant names that are still in use today including:saffron,cumin,turmeric andsesame.[33]
The ancient Greeks gleaned much of their medicinal knowledge from Egypt and Mesopotamia.[33]Hippocrates (460–377 BCE), the "father of medicine" (renowned for the eponymousHippocratic oath), used about 400 drugs, most being of plant origin. However, the first Greek herbal of any note was written byDiocles of Carystus in the fourth century BC—although nothing remains of this except its mention in the written record. It wasAristotle’s pupilTheophrastus (371–287 BCE) in hisHistoria Plantarum, (better known as theEnquiry into Plants) andDe Causis Plantarum (On the Causes of Plants) that established the scientific method of careful and critical observation associated with modern botanical science. Based largely on Aristotle’s notes, the Ninth Book of hisEnquiry deals specifically with medicinal herbs and their uses including the recommendations of herbalists and druggists of the day, and his plant descriptions often included their natural habitat and geographic distribution.[34] With the formation of theAlexandrian School c. 330 BCE medicine flourished and written herbals of this period included those of the physiciansHerophilus,Mantias, Andreas of Karystos, Appolonius Mys, andNicander.[34] The work of rhizomatist (the rhizomati were the doctors of the day, berated by Theophrastus for their superstition) Krateuas (fl. 110 BCE) is of special note because he initiated the tradition of the illustrated herbal in the first century BCE.[35][36]
TheDe Materia Medica (c. 40–90 CE; Greek, Περί ύλης ιατρικής "Peri hules iatrikes", 'On medical materials') ofPedanios Dioscorides, a physician in the Roman army, was produced in about 65 CE. It was the single greatest classical authority on the subject and the most influential herbal ever written,[37] serving as a model for herbals and pharmacopoeias, both oriental and occidental, for the next 1000 years up to theRenaissance.[38] It drew together much of the accumulated herbal knowledge of the time, including some 500 medicinal plants. The original has been lost but a lavishly illustratedByzantine copy known as theVienna Dioscurides dating from about 512 CE remains.[39]
Pliny the Elder's (23–79 CE) encyclopaedicNatural History (c. 77–79 CE) is a synthesis of the information contained in about 2000 scrolls and it includes myths and folklore; there are about 200 extant copies. It comprises 37 books of which sixteen (Books 12–27) are devoted to trees, plants and medicaments and, of these, seven describe medicinal plants. In medieval herbals, along withDe Materia Medica it is Pliny's work that is the most frequently mentioned of the classical texts, even thoughGalen's (131–201 CE)De Simplicibus is more detailed.[40] Another Latin translation of Greek works that was widely copied in the Middle Ages, probably illustrated in the original, was that attributed toApuleius: it also contained the alternative names for particular plants given in several languages. It dates to about 400 CE and a surviving copy dates to about 600 CE.[41]
During the 600 years of the European Middle Ages from 600 to 1200, the tradition of herbal lore fell to themonasteries. Many of the monks were skilled at producing books and manuscripts and tending both medicinal gardens and the sick, but written works of this period simply emulated those of the classical era.[42]
Meanwhile, in the Arab world, by 900 the great Greek herbals had been translated and copies lodged in centres of learning in theByzantine empire of the eastern Mediterranean including Byzantium, Damascus, Cairo and Baghdad where they were combined with the botanical and pharmacological lore of the Orient.[43] In themedieval Islamic world,Muslim botanists andMuslim physicians made a major contribution to the knowledge of herbal medicines. Those associated with this period includeMesue Maior (Masawaiyh, 777–857) who, in hisOpera Medicinalia, synthesised the knowledge of Greeks, Persians, Arabs, Indians and Babylonians, this work was complemented by the medical encyclopaedia ofAvicenna (Ibn Sina, 980–1037).[44] Avicenna'sCanon of Medicine was used for centuries in both East and West.[45] During this period Islamic science protected classical botanical knowledge that had been ignored in the West and Muslim pharmacy thrived.[46]
Anglo-Saxon plant knowledge and gardening skills (the garden was called awyrtzerd, literally, herb-yard) appears to have exceeded that on the continent.[47] Our limited knowledge ofAnglo-Saxon plant vernacular comes primarily from manuscripts that include: theLeechbook of Bald and theLacnunga.[48] The Leechbook of Bald (Bald was probably a friend ofKing Alfred of England) was painstakingly produced by the scribe Cild in about 900–950 CE. This was written in thevernacular (native) tongue and not derived from Greek texts.[49] The oldest illustrated herbal from Saxon times is a translation of the LatinHerbarius Apulei Platonici, one of the most popular medical works of medieval times, the original dating from the fifth century; this Saxon translation was produced about 1000–1050 CE and is housed in the British Library.[50] Another vernacular herbal was theBuch der natur or "Book of Nature" byKonrad von Megenberg (1309–1374) which contains the first two botanical woodcuts ever made; it is also the first work of its kind in the vernacular.[18][43]
In the 12th and early 13th centuries, under the influence of theNorman Conquest, the herbals produced in Britain fell less under the influence of France and Germany and more that of Sicily and the Near East. This showed itself through theByzantine-influencedRomanesque framed illustrations. Anglo-Saxon herbals in the vernacular were replaced by herbals in Latin including Macers Herbal,De Viribus Herbarum (largely derived from Pliny), with the English translation completed in about 1373.[51]
In the thirteenth century, scientific inquiry was returning and this was manifest through the production of encyclopaedias; those noted for their plant content included a seven volume treatise by Albertus Magnus (c. 1193–1280) a Suabian educated at the University of Padua and tutor toSt Thomas Aquinas. It was calledDe Vegetabilibus (c. 1256 AD) and even though based on original observations and plant descriptions it bore a close resemblance to the earlier Greek, Roman and Arabic herbals.[52] Other accounts of the period includeDe Proprietatibus Rerum (c. 1230–1240) of English Franciscan friarBartholomaeus Anglicus and a group of herbals calledTractatus de Herbis written and painted between 1280 and 1300 byMatthaeus Platearius at the East-West cultural centre of Salerno Spain, the illustrations showing the fine detail of true botanical illustration.[53]
Perhaps the best known herbals were produced in Europe between 1470 and 1670.[54] The invention in Germany of printing from movable type in a printing press c. 1440 was a great stimulus to herbalism. The new herbals were more detailed with greater general appeal and often with Gothic script and the addition of woodcut illustrations that more closely resembled the plants being described.
Three important herbals, all appearing before 1500, were printed in Mainz, Germany. Two of these were byPeter Schoeffer, his LatinHerbarius in 1484, followed by an updated and enlarged German version in 1485, these being followed in 1491 by theHortus Sanitatis printed byJacob Meyderbach.[55] Other early printed herbals include theKreuterbuch ofHieronymus Tragus from Germany in 1539 and, in England, theNew Herball of William Turner in 1551 were arranged, like the classical herbals, either alphabetically, according to their medicinal properties, or as "herbs, shrubs, trees".[56] Arrangement of plants in later herbals such asCruydboeck ofDodoens and John Gerard'sHerball of 1597 became more related to their physical similarities and this heralded the beginnings of scientificclassification. By 1640 a herbal had been printed that included about 3800 plants – nearly all the plants of the day that were known.[57]
In theModern Age andRenaissance, European herbals diversified and innovated, and came to rely more on direct observation than being mere adaptations of traditional models. Typical examples from the period are the fully illustratedDe Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes byLeonhart Fuchs (1542, with over 400 plants), theastrologically themedComplete Herbal byNicholas Culpeper (1653), and theCurious Herbal byElizabeth Blackwell (1737).
The earliest printed books and broadsheets are known asincunabula. The first printed herbal appeared in 1469, a version of Pliny'sHistoria Naturalis; it was published nine years before DioscoridesDe Materia Medica was set in type.[37] Important incunabula include the encyclopaedicDe Proprietatibus Rerum ofFranciscan friarBartholomew Anglicus (c. 1203–1272) which, as a manuscript, had first appeared between 1248 and 1260 in at least six languages and after being first printed in 1470 ran to 25 editions.[58] Assyrian physicianMesue (926–1016) wrote the popularDe Simplicibus,Grabadin andLiber Medicinarum Particularum the first of his printings being in 1471. These were followed, in Italy, by theHerbarium ofApuleius Platonicus and three German works published in Mainz, theLatin Herbarius (1484), the first herbal published in Germany,German Herbarius (1485), the latter evolving into theOrtus Sanitatis (1491). To these can be addedMacer’sDe Virtutibus Herbarum, based on Pliny's work; the 1477 edition is one of the first printed and illustrated herbals.[59]
In medieval times, medicinal herbs were generally referred to by the apothecaries (physicians or doctors) as "simples" or "officinals".[a] Before 1542, the works principally used by apothecaries were the treatises on simples byAvicenna andSerapion’sLiber De Simplici Medicina. TheDe Synonymis and other publications of Simon Januensis, theLiber Servitoris of Bulchasim Ben Aberazerim, which described the preparations made from plants, animals and minerals, provided a model for the chemical treatment of modern pharmacopoeias. There was also theAntidotarium Nicolai of Nicolaus de Salerno, which containedGalenical compounds arranged in alphabetical order.[62]
The Spaniards and Portuguese were explorers, the Portuguese to India (Vasco da Gama) and Goa where physicianGarcia de Orta (1490–1570) based his workColóquios dos Simples (1563). The first botanical knowledge of theNew World came from SpaniardNicolas Monardes (1493–1588) who publishedDos Libros between 1569 and 1571.[63] The work of Hernandez on the herbal medicine of the Aztecs has already been discussed.
Otto Brunfels (c. 1489–1534),Leonhart Fuchs (1501–1566) andHieronymus Bock (1498–1554) were known as the "German fathers of botany"[64] although this title belies the fact that they trod in the steps of the scientifically celebratedHildegard of Bingen whose writings on herbalism werePhysica andCausae et Curae (together known asLiber subtilatum) of 1150. The original manuscript is no longer in existence but a copy was printed in 1533.[65] Another major herbalist wasValerius Cordus (1515–1544).[66]
The 1530,Herbarum Vivae Eicones of Brunfels contained the admired botanically accurate original woodcut colour illustrations of Hans Weiditz along with descriptions of 47 species new to science. Bock, in setting out to describe the plants of his native Germany, produced theNew Kreuterbuch of 1539 describing the plants he had found in the woods and fields but without illustration; this was supplemented by a second edition in 1546 that contained 365 woodcuts. Bock was possibly the first to adopt a botanical classification in his herbal which also covered details of ecology and plant communities. In this, he was placing emphasis on botanical rather than medicinal characteristics, unlike the other German herbals and foreshadowing the modernFlora.De Historia Stirpium (1542 with a German version in 1843) of Fuchs was a later publication with 509 high quality woodcuts that again paid close attention to botanical detail: it included many plants introduced to Germany in the sixteenth century that were new to science.[67] The work of Fuchs is regarded as being among the most accomplished of the Renaissance period.[68]
The Flemish printerChristopher Plantin established a reputation publishing the works of Dutch herbalistsRembert Dodoens andCarolus Clusius and developing a vast library of illustrations.[69] Translations of early Greco-Roman texts published in German by Bock in 1546 asKreuterbuch were subsequently translated intoDutch asPemptades by Dodoens (1517–1585) who was a Belgian botanist of world renown. This was an elaboration of his first publicationCruydeboeck (1554).[70]Matthias de Lobel (1538–1616) published hisStirpium Adversaria Nova (1570–1571) and a massive compilation of illustrations[71] while Clusius's (1526–1609) magnum opus wasRariorum Plantarum Historia of 1601 which was a compilation of his Spanish and Hungarian floras and included over 600 plants that were new to science.[72]
In Italy, two herbals were beginning to include botanical descriptions. Notable herbalists includedPietro Andrea Mattioli (1501–1577), physician to the Italian aristocracy and hisCommentarii (1544), which included many newly described species, and his more traditional herbalEpistolarum Medicinalium Libri Quinque (1561). Sometimes, the local flora was described as in the publicationViaggio di Monte Baldo (1566) ofFrancisco Calzolari.Prospero Alpini (1553–1617) published in 1592 the highly popular account of overseas plantsDe Plantis Aegypti and he also established abotanical garden in Padua in 1542, which together with those at Pisa and Florence, rank among the world's first.[73]
The first true herbal printed in Britain was Richard Banckes'Herball of 1525[74] which, although popular in its day, was unillustrated and soon eclipsed by the most famous of the early printed herbals, Peter Treveris'sGrete Herball of 1526 (derived in turn from the derivative FrenchGrand Herbier).[75]
William Turner (?1508–7 to 1568) was an Englishnaturalist, botanist, andtheologian who studied atCambridge University and eventually became known as the “father of English botany." His 1538 publicationLibellus de re Herbaria Novus was the first essay on scientific botany in English. His three-partA New Herball of 1551–1562–1568, with woodcut illustrations taken from Fuchs, was noted for its original contributions and extensive medicinal content; it was also more accessible to readers, being written in vernacular English. Turner described over 200 species native to England.[76] and his work had a strong influence on later eminent botanists such asJohn Ray andJean Bauhin.
John Gerard (1545–1612) is the most famous of all the English herbalists.[77] HisHerball of 1597 is, like most herbals, largely derivative. It appears to be a reformulation of Hieronymus Bock'sKreuterbuch subsequently translated intoDutch asPemptades byRembert Dodoens (1517–1585), and thence intoEnglish byCarolus Clusius, (1526–1609) then re-worked byHenry Lyte in 1578 asA Nievve Herball. This became the basis of Gerard'sHerball orGeneral Historie of Plantes.[78] that appeared in 1597 with its 1800 woodcuts (only 16 original). Although largely derivative, Gerard's popularity can be attributed to his evocation of plants and places in Elizabethan England and to the clear influence of gardens and gardening on this work.[79]He had published, in 1596,Catalogus which was a list of 1033 plants growing in his garden.[80]
John Parkinson (1567–1650) was apothecary toJames I and a founding member of the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries. He was an enthusiastic and skilful gardener, his garden in Long Acre being stocked with rarities. He maintained an active correspondence with important English and Continental botanists, herbalists and plantsmen importing new and unusual plants from overseas, in particular theLevant andVirginia. Parkinson is celebrated for his two monumental works, the firstParadisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris in 1629: this was essentially a gardening book, aflorilegium for whichCharles I awarded him the titleBotanicus Regius Primarius – Royal Botanist. The second was hisTheatrum Botanicum of 1640, the largest herbal ever produced in the English language. It lacked the quality illustrations of Gerard's works, but was a massive and informative compendium including about 3800 plants (twice the number of Gerard's first editionHerball), over 1750 pages and over 2,700 woodcuts.[81] This was effectively the last and culminating herbal of its kind and, although it included more plants of no discernible economic or medicinal use than ever before, they were nevertheless arranged according to their properties rather than their natural affinities.[82]
Nicholas Culpeper (1616–1654) was an Englishbotanist,herbalist,physician,apothecary andastrologer from London's East End.[83] His published books wereA Physicall Directory[84] (1649), which was a pseudoscientific pharmacopoeia.The English Physitian[85] (1652) and theComplete Herbal[86] (1653), contain a rich store of pharmaceutical and herbal knowledge. His works lacked scientific credibility because of their use ofastrology, though he combined diseases, plants and astrological prognosis into a simple integrated system that has proved popular to the present day.[77]
The legacy of the herbal extends beyond medicine to botany and horticulture. Herbal medicine is still practiced in many parts of the world but the traditional grand herbal, as described here, ended with the European Renaissance, the rise of modern medicine and the use of synthetic and industrialized drugs. The medicinal component of herbals has developed in several ways. Firstly, discussion of plant lore was reduced and with the increased medical content there emerged the official pharmacopoeia. The first British Pharmacopoeia was published in the English language in 1864, but gave such general dissatisfaction both to the medical profession and to chemists and druggists that the General Medical Council brought out a new and amended edition in 1867. Secondly, at a more popular level, there are the books on culinary herbs and herb gardens, medicinal and useful plants. Finally, the enduring desire for simple medicinal information on specific plants has resulted in contemporary herbals that echo the herbals of the past, an example beingMaud Grieve'sA Modern Herbal, first published in 1931 but with many subsequent editions.[87]
The magical and mystical side of the herbal also lives on. Herbals often explained plant lore, displaying a superstitious or spiritual side. There was, for example, the fancifuldoctrine of signatures, the belief that there were similarities in the appearance of the part of the body affected the appearance of the plant to be used as a remedy. The astrology of Culpeper can be seen in contemporaryanthroposophy (biodynamic gardening) and alternative medical approaches likehomeopathy,aromatherapy and othernew age medicine show connections with herbals and traditional medicine.[77]
It is sometimes forgotten that the plants described in herbals were grown in special herb gardens (physic gardens). Such herb gardens were, for example, part of the medieval monastery garden that supplied the simples or officinals used to treat the sick being cared for within the monastery. Earlyphysic gardens were also associated with institutes of learning, whether amonastery,university orherbarium. It was this medieval garden of the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries, attended byapothecaries andphysicians, that established a tradition leading to the systems gardens of the eighteenth century (gardens that demonstrated the classification system of plants) and the modernbotanical garden. The advent of printing, woodcuts and metal engraving improved the means of communication. Herbals prepared the ground for modern botanical science by pioneering plant description, classification and illustration.[88] From the time of the ancients like Dioscorides through to Parkinson in 1629, the scope of the herbal remained essentially the same.[89]
The greatest legacy of the herbal is to botany. Up to the seventeenth century, botany and medicine were one and the same but gradually greater emphasis was placed on the plants rather than their medicinal properties. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, plant description and classification began to relate plants to one another and not to humans. This was the first glimpse of non-anthropocentric botanical science since Theophrastus and, coupled with the new system ofbinomial nomenclature, resulted in "scientific herbals" calledFloras that detailed and illustrated the plants growing in a particular region. These books were often backed byherbaria, collections of dried plants that verified the plant descriptions given in the Floras. In this way modern botany, especiallyplant taxonomy, was born out of medicine. As herbal historianAgnes Arber remarks – "Sibthorp's monumentalFlora Graeca is, indeed, the direct descendant in modern science of theDe Materia Medica of Dioscorides."[90]
