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Henotheism is the worship of a single, supremegod that does not deny the existence or possible existence of otherdeities that may be worshipped.[1][2][3]Friedrich Schelling (1775–1854) coined the word, andFriedrich Welcker (1784–1868) used it to depict primitivemonotheism among ancient Greeks.[4]
Max Müller (1823–1900), a British philologist andorientalist, brought the term into wider usage in his scholarship on theIndian religions,[5][6] particularlyHinduism, whose scriptures mention and praise numerous deities as if they are one ultimate unitary divine essence.[2] Müller made the term central to his criticism ofWestern theological and religiousexceptionalism (relative toEastern religions), focusing on a culturaldogma which held "monotheism" to be both fundamentally well-defined and inherently superior to differingconcepts of God.[7]
Friedrich Schelling coined the German termHenotheismus from Greek ἕν (hén) 'one' and GermanTheismus 'theism' (which comes from Greek θεός (theós) 'god').[2][8][9] The term refers to a form oftheism focused on a single god. Related terms aremonolatry andkathenotheism.[3] The latter term is an extension of "henotheism", from καθ' ἕνα θεόν (kath' hena theon) '"one god at a time"'.[10] Henotheism refers to a pluralistic theology wherein different deities are viewed to be of a unitary, equivalent divine essence.[2] Another term related to henotheism is "equitheism", referring to the belief that all gods are equal.[11] Furthermore, the term henotheism does not excludemonism,nondualism, ordualism.[6]
Various scholars prefer the term monolatry to henotheism, to discuss religions where a single god is central, but the existence or the position of other gods is not denied.[3][9] According to Christoph Elsas, henotheism in modern usage connotes asyncretic stage in the development of religions in late antiquity. A henotheist may worship a single god from apantheon of deities at a given time, depending on his or her choice, while accepting other deities and concepts of god.[2][6] Henotheism and inclusive monotheism are terms that refer to a middle position between unlimited polytheism and exclusive monotheism.[3]
Zoroastrianism is often regarded as one of the oldest monotheistic religions in the world. AlthoughAhura Mazda is the supreme god, Zoroastrianism believes in lesser divinities known as Yazatas.[12] Theseyazatas ("good agents") includeAnahita,Sraosha,Mithra,Rashnu, andTishtrya. According to some scholars, there are two issues that have long made it problematic to identify Zoroastrianism as true monotheism: the presence of lesser deities and dualism. But before hastening to conclude that theAmesha Spentas and the other yazatas compromise the purity of monotheism, we should consider that the other historical monotheisms too made room for other figures endowed with supernatural powers to bridge the gulf between the exalted, remote Creator God and the human world: the angels in all of them (whose conception in post-exilic Judaism was apparently developed after the pattern of the Amesha Spentas; Boyce and Grenet, 1991, 404–405), the saints and the Virgin Mary in several Christian churches, and the other persons of the Trinity in all of Christianity. Despite the vast differences with Zoroastrian theology, the common thread is that all these beings are subordinate to the Godhead as helpers or (in the case of the persons of the Trinity) co-equals, hence they do not pursue different interests and are worshiped jointly with the Godhead, not separately; therefore the supplicant's dilemma does not arise.[12] Others such asRichard Foltz has put forth evidence thatIranians of Pre-Islamic era worshipped all these figures, especially Mithra and Anahita.[13]
Prods Oktor Skjærvø states Zoroastrianism is henotheistic, and "a dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos".[14] Other scholars state that this is unclear, because historic texts present a conflicting picture, ranging from Zoroastrianism's belief in "one god, two gods, or a best god henotheism".[15]
To what is One
They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni,
and he is heavenly-winged Garutman.
To what is One, sages give many a title.
Henotheism was the term used by scholars such asMax Müller to describe the theology ofVedic religion.[18][2] Müller noted that the hymns of theRigveda, the oldest scripture of Hinduism, mention many deities, but praises them successively as the "one ultimate, supreme God", alternatively as "one supreme Goddess",[19] thereby asserting that the essence of the deities was unitary (ekam), and the deities were nothing but pluralistic manifestations of the same concept of the divine (God).[2][6][9]
The Vedic era conceptualization of the divine or the One, states Jeaneane Fowler, is more abstract than a monotheistic God, it is the Reality behind and of the phenomenal universe.[20] The Vedic hymns treat it as "limitless, indescribable, absolute principle", thus the Vedic divine is something of apanentheism rather than simple henotheism.[20] In late Vedic era, around the start of Upanishadic age (~800 BCE), theosophical speculations emerge that develop concepts which scholars variously callnondualism ormonism, as well as forms of non-theism andpantheism.[20][21][22] An example of the questioning of the concept of God, in addition to henotheistic hymns found therein, are in later portions of theRigveda, such as theNasadiya Sukta.[23]Hinduism calls the metaphysical absolute concept asBrahman, incorporating within it thetranscendent andimmanent reality.[24][25][26] Different schools of thought interpret Brahman as eitherpersonal, impersonal or transpersonal. Ishwar Chandra Sharma describes it as "Absolute Reality, beyond all dualities of existence and non-existence, light and darkness, and of time, space and cause."[27]
WhileGreek andRoman religion began aspolytheism, during theClassical period, under the influence of philosophy, differing conceptions emerged. OftenZeus (orJupiter) was considered the supreme, all-powerful and all-knowing king and father of the Olympian gods. According toMaijastina Kahlos, "monotheism was pervasive in the educated circles in Late Antiquity" and "all divinities were interpreted as aspects, particles or epithets of one supreme God".[28](pp 145, 160)Maximus Tyrius (2nd century CE) stated: "In such a mighty contest, sedition and discord, you will see one according law and assertion in all the earth, that there is one God, the king and father of all things, and many gods, sons of God, ruling together with him."[29] TheNeoplatonic philosopherPlotinus taught that above the gods of traditional belief was "The One".[28](pp 145, 160) Maximus, the polytheist grammarian ofMadauros,[28](pp 70) even stated that "only a madman would deny the existence of the supreme God".[28](pp 145, 160)
Second Temple Judaism andRabbinical Judaism are emphatically monotheistic; however, its predecessor—the cult ofYahweh as it was practiced inancient Israel during the 9th and 8th centuries BCE (Yahwism)—has been described as henotheistic ormonolatric. For example, theMoabites worshipped the godChemosh, theEdomites,Qaus, both of whom were part of the greaterCanaanite pantheon, headed by the chief god,El. The Canaanite pantheon consisted ofEl andAsherah as the chief deities, with 70 sons who were said to rule over each of the nations of the earth. These sons were each worshiped within a specific region.Kurt Noll states that "the Bible preserves a tradition that Yahweh used to 'live' in the south, in the land of Edom" and that the original god of Israel wasEl Shaddai.[30]
Several biblical stories allude to the belief that the Canaanite gods all existed and were thought to possess the most power in the lands by the people who worshiped them and their sacred objects; their power was believed to be real and could be invoked by the people who patronized them. There are numerous accounts of surrounding nations of Israel showing fear or reverence for the Israelite God despite their continued polytheistic practices.[31] For instance, in 1 Samuel 4, thePhilistines fret before the second battle ofAphek when they learn that the Israelites are bearing theArk of the Covenant, and therefore Yahweh, into battle. The Israelites were forbidden to worship other deities; according to some interpretations of the Bible, they were not fully monotheistic before theBabylonian captivity. The biblical scholarMark S. Smith refers to this stage as a form ofmonolatry.[32] Smith argues that Yahweh underwent a process of merging with El and that acceptance of cults ofAsherah was common in the period of the Judges.[32] 2 Kings 3:27 has been interpreted as describing a human sacrifice in Moab that led the invading Israelite army to fear the power ofChemosh.[33]
Paul the Apostle, in hisFirst Epistle to the Corinthians, writes that "we know that an idol is nothing" and "that there is none other God but one".[34] He argues in verse 5 that "for though there be that are called gods, whether in heaven or in earth", "but to us there is but one God". Some translators of verse 5 put the words "gods" and "lords" in quotes to indicate that they are gods or lords onlyso-called.[35]
In hisSecond Epistle to the Corinthians, Paul refers to "the god of this world",[36] which the 18th-century theologianJohn Gill interpreted as a reference toSatan or the material things put before God, such as money, rather than acknowledging any separate deity from God.[37]
Some scholars have written thatthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) can be characterized as henotheistic but others have rejected that stance.Eugene England, a professor atBrigham Young University, asserted that LDS PresidentsBrigham Young andJoseph Fielding Smith along with the LDS scholarB. H. Roberts used the LDS interpretation of 1 Corinthians 8:5–6 as "a brief explanation of how it is possible to be both a Christian polytheist (technically a henotheist) and a monotheist".[38]BYU Professor Roger R. Keller rejected descriptions of the LDS Church as polytheistic by countering, as summarized by a reviewer, "Mormons are fundamentally monotheistic because they deal with only one god out of the many which exist."[39]
In their book,Mormon America: The Power and the Promise,Richard and Joan Ostling, wrote that some Mormons are comfortable describing themselves as henotheists.[40] Kurt Widmer, professor at theUniversity of Lethbridge, described LDS beliefs as a "cosmic henotheism".[41] A review of Widmer's book by Bruening and Paulsen in theFARMS Review of Books countered that Widmer's hypothesis was "strongly disconfirmed in light of the total evidence".[42] Van Hale wrote that "Mormonism teaches the existence of gods who are not the Father, Son, or Holy Ghost" and "the existence of more than one god [is] clearly a Mormon doctrine", but he also said that defining this belief system in theological terms was troublesome. According to Van Hale, henotheism might appear to be "promising" in describing LDS beliefs but is ultimately not accurate because henotheism was intended to describe the worship of a god that was restricted to a specific geographical area.[43]
In Japan, manyJapanese new religions can be considered to be monotheistic (such asTenrikyo)[44] or henotheistic (such asKonkokyo).[45]
From many of the examples provided above, it should be clear that the best preserved example of Iron Age Canaanite henotheism is the anthology we call the Jewish Bible (Christian Old Testament). Although the Bible contains a few late additions designed to transform its religion into monotheism, the overwhelming majority of its texts are henotheistic. To be more precise, the Bible usually expresses monolatry, which is a more extreme form of henotheism. Whereas henotheism believes in many gods, but with one supremely powerful god, monolatry believes in many gods, but with only one god that is worthy of worship. Thus, the monolatrist is a henotheist who acknowledges lesser gods but refuses to worship them.
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