Painting of Hendrik Lorentz by Menso Kamerlingh Onnes, 1916Portrait byJan VethLorentz' theory of electrons. Formulas for theLorentz force (I) and theMaxwell equations for thedivergence of theelectrical field E (II) and themagnetic field B (III),La théorie electromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvants, 1892, p. 451.V is the velocity of light.Lorentz' theory of electrons. Formulas for thecurl of the magnetic field (IV) and the electrical field E (V),La théorie electromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvants, 1892, p. 452
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz was born on 18 July 1853 inArnhem, Netherlands, the son of Gerrit Frederik Lorentz (1822–1893) and Geertruida van Ginkel (1826–1861). In 1862, after his mother's death, his father married Luberta Hupkes. Despite being raised as aProtestant, he was a freethinker in religious matters and regularly attendedCatholic mass at his local French church.[5]
From 1866 to 1869, Lorentz attended theHogere Burgerschool in Arnhem, a new type of public high school recently established byJohan Thorbecke. His results in school were exemplary; not only did he excel in the physical sciences and mathematics, but also in English, French, and German. In 1870, he passed the exams inclassical languages, which were then required for admission to university.[6]
In 1870, Lorentz enteredLeiden University, where he was strongly influenced by the teaching of astronomy professorFrederik Kaiser; it was his influence that led Lorentz to become a physicist. The following year, he obtained aB.Sc. in Mathematics and Physics. In 1872, he returned to Arnhem to become a night school teacher, while also continuing his studies at Leiden.[7] In 1875, he received hisPh.D. underPieter Rijke with a thesis on the reflection and refraction of light, in which he refined the electromagnetic theory ofJames Clerk Maxwell.[6][8]
In 1878, Lorentz was appointed to the newly established Chair of Theoretical Physics atLeiden University; the position had initially been offered toJohannes van der Waals, but he had just accepted a professorship at theUniversity of Amsterdam.[6] On 25 January 1878, he delivered his inaugural lecture titledDe moleculaire theoriën in de natuurkunde (The molecular theories in physics).
During his first 20 years at Leiden, Lorentz was primarily interested in the electromagnetic theory of electricity, magnetism, and light. After that, he extended his research to a much wider area while still focusing on theoretical physics. He made significant contributions to fields ranging fromhydrodynamics togeneral relativity. His most important contributions were in the area ofelectromagnetism, theelectron theory, andrelativity.[6]
In 1910, Lorentz decided to reorganize his career; his teaching and management duties at Leiden University were taking up too much of his time, leaving him little time for research. He initially askedAlbert Einstein to succeed him as Professor of Theoretical Physics at Leiden. However, Einstein did not accept, because he had just taken up a position atETH Zurich and the prospect of having to fill Lorentz's shoes made him shiver. He ultimately chosePaul Ehrenfest as his successor.[6]
In 1912, Lorentz resigned from his chair at Leiden University to become Curator of the Physical Cabinet atTeylers Museum inHaarlem. He continued to teach at Leiden as Extraordinary Professor, delivering his famous "Monday morning lectures" on new developments in theoretical physics.[6]
In 1892 and 1895, Lorentz worked on describing electromagnetic phenomena (the propagation of light) in reference frames that move relative to the postulatedluminiferous aether.[9][10] He discovered that the transition from one to another reference frame could be simplified by using a new time variable that he calledlocal time and which depended on universal time and the location under consideration. Although he did not give a detailed interpretation of the physical significance of local time, with it, he could explain theaberration of light and the result of theFizeau experiment. In 1900 and 1904,Henri Poincaré called local time Lorentz's "most ingenious idea" and illustrated it by showing that clocks in moving frames are synchronized by exchanging light signals that are assumed to travel at the same speed against and with the motion of the frame[11][12] (seeEinstein synchronisation andRelativity of simultaneity). In 1892, with the attempt to explain theMichelson–Morley experiment, he also proposed that moving bodiescontract in the direction of motion.[13]
It was apparently unknown to Lorentz thatJoseph Larmor had used identical transformations to describe orbiting electrons in 1897. Larmor's and Lorentz's equations look somewhat dissimilar, but they are algebraically equivalent to those presented by Poincaré and Einstein in 1905.[16] Lorentz's 1904 paper includes the covariant formulation of electrodynamics, in which electrodynamic phenomena in different reference frames are described by identical equations with well defined transformation properties. The paper clearly recognizes the significance of this formulation, namely that the outcomes of electrodynamic experiments do not depend on the relative motion of the reference frame. The 1904 paper includes a detailed discussion of the increase of the inertial mass of rapidly moving objects in a useless attempt to make momentum look exactly like Newtonian momentum; it was also an attempt to explain the length contraction as the accumulation of "stuff" onto mass making it slow and contract.
Lorentz theorized thatatoms consist ofcharged particles, and suggested that the oscillations of these charged particles were the source of light. His colleague and former student,Pieter Zeeman, discovered theZeeman effect in 1896, and Lorentz supplied its theoretical interpretation. Their joint work earned them theNobel Prize in Physics in 1902.
In 1905, Einstein would use many of the concepts, mathematical tools and results Lorentz discussed to write his paper titledZur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper (On the electrodynamics of moving bodies),[17] known today as thespecial theory of relativity. Because Lorentz laid the fundamentals for the work by Einstein, this theory was originally called theLorentz–Einstein theory.[18]
The increase of mass was the first prediction of Lorentz and Einstein to be tested, but some experiments byWalter Kaufmann appeared to show a slightly different mass increase; this led Lorentz to the famous remark that he was "au bout de mon latin" ("at the end of my [knowledge of] Latin" = at his wit's end)[19] The confirmation of his prediction had to wait until 1908 and later (seeKaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments).
Lorentz published a series of papers dealing with what he called "Einstein's principle of relativity". For instance, in 1909,[20][failed verification] 1910,[21][22] 1914.[23] In his 1906 lectures published with additions in 1909 in the book "The theory of electrons" (updated in 1915), he spoke affirmatively of Einstein's theory:[20]
It will be clear by what has been said that the impressions received by the two observers A0 and A would be alike in all respects. It would be impossible to decide which of them moves or stands still with respect to the ether, and there would be no reason for preferring the times and lengths measured by the one to those determined by the other, nor for saying that either of them is in possession of the "true" times or the "true" lengths. This is a point which Einstein has laid particular stress on, in a theory in which he starts from what he calls the principle of relativity, I cannot speak here of the many highly interesting applications which Einstein has made of this principle. His results concerning electromagnetic and optical phenomena agree in the main with those which we have obtained in the preceding pages, the chief difference being that Einstein simply postulates what we have deduced, with some difficulty and not altogether satisfactorily, from the fundamental equations of the electromagnetic field. By doing so, he may certainly take credit for making us see in the negative result of experiments like those of Michelson, Rayleigh and Brace, not a fortuitous compensation of opposing effects, but the manifestation of a general and fundamental principle. It would be unjust not to add that, besides the fascinating boldness of its starting point, Einstein's theory has another marked advantage over mine. Whereas I have not been able to obtain for the equations referred to moving axesexactly the same form as for those which apply to a stationary system, Einstein has accomplished this by means of a system of new variables slightly different from those which I have introduced.
Though Lorentz still maintained that there is an (undetectable) aether in which resting clocks indicate the "true time":
1909: Yet, I think, something may also be claimed in favour of the form in which I have presented the theory. I cannot but regard the ether, which can be the seat of an electromagnetic field with its energy and its vibrations, as endowed with a certain degree of substantiality, however different it may be from all ordinary matter.[20] 1910: Provided that there is an aether, then under all systems x, y, z, t, one is preferred by the fact, that the coordinate axes as well as the clocks are resting in the aether. If one connects with this the idea (which I would abandon only reluctantly) that space and time are completely different things, and that there is a "true time" (simultaneity thus would be independent of the location, in agreement with the circumstance that we can have the idea of infinitely great velocities), then it can be easily seen that this true time should be indicated by clocks at rest in the aether. However, if the relativity principle had general validity in nature, one wouldn't be in the position to determine, whether the reference system just used is the preferred one. Then one comes to the same results, as if one (following Einstein and Minkowski) deny the existence of the aether and of true time, and to see all reference systems as equally valid. Which of these two ways of thinking one is following, can surely be left to the individual.[21]
Lorentz also gave credit to Poincaré's contributions to relativity.[24]
Indeed, for some of the physical quantities which enter the formulas, I did not indicate the transformation which suits best. That was done by Poincaré and then by Mr. Einstein and Minkowski. I did not succeed in obtaining the exact invariance of the equations. Poincaré, on the contrary, obtained a perfect invariance of the equations of electrodynamics, and he formulated the "postulate of relativity", terms which he was the first to employ. Let us add that by correcting the imperfections of my work he never reproached me for them.
Lorentz was one of few scientists who supported Einstein's search forgeneral relativity from the beginning – he wrote several research papers and discussed with Einstein personally and by letter.[25] For instance, he attempted to combine Einstein's formalism withHamilton's principle (1915),[26]and to reformulate it in acoordinate-free way (1916).[27][28] Lorentz wrote in 1919:[29]
The total eclipse of the sun of May 29, resulted in a striking confirmation of the new theory of the universal attractive power of gravitation developed by Albert Einstein, and thus reinforced the conviction that the defining of this theory is one of the most important steps ever taken in the domain of natural science.
AfterWorld War I, Lorentz was one of the driving forces behind the founding of theWetenschappelijke Commissie van Advies en Onderzoek in het Belang van Volkswelvaart en Weerbaarheid, a committee which was to harness the scientific potential united in theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) for solving civil problems such as food shortage which had resulted from the war. Lorentz was appointed chair of the committee. However, despite the best efforts of many of the participants the committee would harvest little success. The only exception being that it ultimately resulted in the founding of TNO, theNetherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research.[6]
Lorentz was also asked by the Dutch government to chair a committee to calculate some of the effects of the proposedAfsluitdijk (Enclosure Dam) flood control dam on water levels in theWaddenzee.Hydraulic engineering was mainly an empirical science at that time, but the disturbance of the tidal flow caused by the Afsluitdijk was so unprecedented that the empirical rules could not be trusted. Originally, Lorentz was only supposed to have a coordinating role in the committee, but it quickly became apparent that Lorentz was the only physicist to have any fundamental traction on the problem. In the period 1918 till 1926, Lorentz invested a large portion of his time in the problem.[31] Lorentz proposed to start from the basichydrodynamic equations of motion and solve the problem numerically. This was feasible for a "human computer", because of the quasi-one-dimensional nature of the water flow in theWaddenzee. The Afsluitdijk was completed in 1932, and the predictions of Lorentz and his committee turned out to be remarkably accurate.[32][6] One of the two sets of locks in the Afsluitdijk was named after him.
In 1881, Lorentz married Aletta Catharina Kaiser, with whom he had two daughters and one son. The eldest daughter,Geertruida, was a physicist and a doctoral student of her father. She marriedWander de Haas, who was the Director of the Kamerlingh Onnes Laboratory at Leiden University.[33]
In January 1928, Lorentz became seriously ill, and died shortly after on 4 February.[6] The respect in which he was held in the Netherlands is apparent fromOwen Richardson's description of his funeral:
The funeral took place at Haarlem at noon on Friday, February 10. At the stroke of twelve the State telegraph and telephone services of Holland were suspended for three minutes as a revered tribute to the greatest man the Netherlands has produced in our time. It was attended by many colleagues and distinguished physicists from foreign countries. The President,Sir Ernest Rutherford, represented the Royal Society and made an appreciative oration by the graveside.
Unique 1928 film footage of the funeral procession with a lead carriage followed by ten mourners, followed by a carriage with the coffin, followed in turn by at least four more carriages, passing by a crowd at theGrote Markt, Haarlem, from the Zijlstraat to the Smedestraat, and then back again through the Grote Houtstraat towards theBarteljorisstraat, on the way to the "Algemene Begraafplaats" at the Kleverlaan (northern Haarlem cemetery), has been digitized onYouTube.[35] Amongst others, the funeral was attended byAlbert Einstein andMarie Curie.[36]
"In recognition of the extraordinary service they rendered by their researches into the influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena" (withPieter Zeeman)
According to his biography published by theNobel Foundation, "It may well be said that Lorentz was regarded by all theoretical physicists as the world's leading spirit, who completed what was left unfinished by his predecessors and prepared the ground for the fruitful reception of the new ideas based on thequantum theory."[7]
Lorentz is considered one of the prime representatives of the "Second Dutch Golden Age," a period of several decades surrounding 1900 in which the natural sciences flourished in the Netherlands.[6]
Richardson describes Lorentz as:
A man of remarkable intellectual powers. Although steeped in his own investigation of the moment, he always seemed to have in his immediate grasp its ramifications into every corner of the universe. The singular clearness of his writings provides a striking reflection of his wonderful powers in this respect. He possessed and successfully employed the mental vivacity which is necessary to follow the interplay of discussion, the insight which is required to extract those statements which illuminate the real difficulties, and the wisdom to lead the discussion among fruitful channels, and he did this so skillfully that the process was hardly perceptible.[34]
M. J. Klein (1967) wrote of Lorentz's reputation in the 1920s:
For many years physicists had always been eager "to hear what Lorentz will say about it" when a new theory was advanced, and, even at seventy-two, he did not disappoint them.[45]
Lorentz-monument Park Sonsbeek inArnhem, the Netherlands
Einstein wrote of Lorentz:
1928: The enormous significance of his work consisted therein, that it forms the basis for the theory of atoms and for the general and special theories of relativity. The special theory was a more detailed expose of those concepts which are found in Lorentz's research of 1895.[46] 1953: For me personally he meant more than all the others I have met on my life's journey.[47]
Poincaré (1902) said of Lorentz's theory of electrodynamics:[48]
The most satisfactory theory is that of Lorentz; it is unquestionably the theory that best explains the known facts, the one that throws into relief the greatest number of known relations. It is due to Lorentz that the results ofFizeau on the optics of moving bodies, the laws of normal and abnormal dispersion and of absorption are connected with each other. Look at the ease with which the newZeeman phenomenon found its place, and even aided the classification of Faraday's magnetic rotation, which had defied allMaxwell's efforts.
It will be Lorentz's main claim to fame that he demonstrated that the fundamental equations of electromagnetism also allow of a group of transformations that enables them to resume the same form when a transition is made from one reference system to another.This group differs fundamentally from the above group as regards transformations of space and time.''
Lorentz was chairman of the firstSolvay Conference held in Brussels in the autumn of 1911. Shortly after the conference, Poincaré wrote an essay on quantum physics which gives an indication of Lorentz's status at the time:[50]
At every moment the twenty physicists from different countries could be heard talking of the [quantum mechanics] which they contrasted with the old mechanics. Now what was the old mechanics? Was it that of Newton, the one which still reigned uncontested at the close of the nineteenth century? No, it was the mechanics of Lorentz, the one dealing with the principle of relativity; the one which, hardly five years ago, seemed to be the height of boldness.
^Russell McCormmach."Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon". Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Retrieved25 April 2012.Although he grew up in Protestant circles, he was a freethinker in religious matters; he regularly attended the local French church to improve his French.
^abcdefghijKox, Anne J. (2011). "Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (in Dutch)".Nederlands Tijdschirft voor Natuurkunde.77 (12): 441.
^Poincaré, Henri (1904),"The Principles of Mathematical Physics" ,Congress of arts and science, universal exposition, St. Louis, 1904, vol. 1, Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, pp. 604–622
^Janssen, M. (1992). "H. A. Lorentz's Attempt to Give a Coordinate-free Formulation of the General. Theory of Relativity.".Studies in the History of General Relativity. Boston: Birkhäuser. pp. 344–363.ISBN978-0817634797.
^Lorentz, H. A. (1926).The New Quantum Theory(PDF). Ithaca, NY: Typescript of Lecture Notes.Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved12 August 2016.
^Przibram, Karl, ed. (1967),Letters of wave mechanics: Schrödinger, Planck, Einstein, Lorentz. Edited by Karl Przibram for the Austrian Academy of Sciences, translated by Klein, Martin J., New York: Philosophical Library
de Haas-Lorentz, Geertruida L.; Fagginger Auer, Joh. C. (trans.) (1957),H.A. Lorentz: impressions of his life and work, Amsterdam: North-Holland Pub. Co.
Langevin, Paul (1911), "L'évolution de l'espace et du temps",Scientia,X:31–54
Poincaré, Henri (1900), "La théorie de Lorentz et le principe de réaction",Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles,V:253–78 SeeEnglish translation.
Poincaré, Henri (1913),Dernières pensées, Paris: Ernest Flammarion :n.p.. The quotation in the article is from the English translation: (Poincaré, Henri; Bolduc, John W. (trans.) (1963),Mathematics and science: last essays, New York: Dover Publications :n.p.)
Sri Kantha, S. Einstein and Lorentz.Nature, 13 July 1995; 376: 111. (Letter)
Kox, A.J., and H.F. Schatz,"A Living Work of Art": The Life and Science of Hendrik Antoon Lorentz. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021.
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