Notes

1. ^^abcdef/p/,/t/,/k/ areunaspirated, as in theRomance languages, or as in Englishspy, sty, sky. In final position, they areunreleased[p̚,t̪̚,ʔ̚], with finalk being aglottal stop, but remaining as[k̚] for many Indonesian speakers, especially in loanwords./b,d/ are also unreleased, and therefore devoiced,[p̚,t̚]. There is noliaison: they remain unreleased even when followed by a vowel, as inkulit ubi "sweet potato skin", though they are pronounced as a normal medial consonant when followed by a suffix.
2. ^^abcdeThe fricatives[f,z,ʃ,x] are found in loanwords only. Some speakers pronounce orthographic ‹v› in loanwords as[v]; otherwise it is virtually always pronounced as[f] by mostly native Indonesian speakers. The fricative [z] can also be an allophone of /s/ before voiced consonants, although this is rare.
3. ^^abcThe glottal stop[ʔ] is an allophone of/k/ and/ɡ/ in the coda:baik,bapak. It is also used between identical vowels inhiatus. Only a few words have this sound in the middle, e.g.bakso (meatballs) andrakyat (alternative word of 'people' or 'society'). It may be represented by an apostrophe in Arabic derived words such asAl Qur'an.
4. ^In traditional Malay areas, therhotic consonant/r/ is realized as a velar or uvular fricative,[ɣ] or[ʁ], and elided word-finally. Elsewhere, including in Standard Indonesian, it is an alveolar tap[ɾ] or trill[r]. Its position relative to schwa is ambiguous:kertas "paper" may be pronounced[krəˈtas] or[kərəˈtas]. It is also pronounced as approximant [ɹ], possibly influenced by English in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei.
5. ^^abIn Malaysian, word-final/a/ is often reduced to[ə].
6. ^[ɑ] is an occasional allophone of /a/after or before more carefully pronounced consonant from Arabic loanwords, example:qari [qɑri].
7. ^^abcd[e,o] areallophones of/i,u/ in native words in closed final syllables, but have become established as distinct phonemes in English and Javanese loanwords. The diphthongs/ai,au/, which only occur in open syllables, are often merged into[e,o], respectively, especially inJava.
8. ^The Malay/Indonesian/e/ doesn't quite line up with any English vowel, though the nearest equivalents are the vowel ofclay (for most English dialects) and the vowel ofget. The Malay/Indonesian vowel is usually articulated at a point between the two.
9. ^^abcd/e,i,o,u/ inIndonesian language havelaxallophones[ɛ,ɪ,ɔ,ʊ] inclosed final syllables, except that tense[i,u] occur in stressed syllables with a coda nasal, and lax[ɛ,ɔ] also occur in open syllables if the following syllable contains the same lax vowel.
10. ^^abcdeThe pronunciation with the lax allophone [ɪ] or [ʊ] only occurs in Indonesian.
11. ^Stress generally falls on thepenultimate syllable. If that syllable contains a schwa[ə], stress shifts to theantepenult if there is one, and to the final syllable if there is not. Some suffixes are ignored for stress placement.

See also