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Help:IPA/English

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<Help:IPA
This page is about the pronunciation of words in English. For sounds not found in English, seeHelp:IPA. For a basic introduction to the IPA, seeHelp:IPA/Introduction. For a guide to adding IPA characters to Wikipedia articles, seeWikipedia:Manual of Style/Pronunciation § Entering IPA characters.

This is thepronunciation key forIPA transcriptions of English on Wikipedia.
It provides a set of symbols to represent the pronunciation of English in Wikipedia articles, and example words that illustrate the sounds that correspond to them. Integrity must be maintained between the key and the transcriptions that link here; do not change any symbol or value without establishingconsensus on thetalk page first.
For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA. For the distinction between[ ],/ / and ⟨ ⟩, seeIPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.
Wikipedia key to pronunciation of English

On Wikipedia, the pronunciation of words is shown using theInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The tables below provide a key to the IPA symbols used for English pronunciations. Please note that some of these symbols are used in ways specific to Wikipedia, and may differ from their usage in dictionaries.

If IPA symbols do not display correctly in your browser, see thetroubleshooting links below.

Editors should useIPA templates such as{{IPAc-en}} when adding IPA to Wikipedia articles, seeManual of Style/Pronunciation § Entering IPA characters for guidance. These templates ensure accessibility and tooltip functionality, seethe documentation page for usage instructions.

Key

If you are looking for an IPA symbol that does not appear in the pronunciation key below, seeHelp:IPA, which provides a more comprehensive list. For a table showing how the sounds on this page correspond to English spellings, seeEnglish orthography § Sound-to-spelling correspondences. For assistance in converting spellings to pronunciations, refer toEnglish orthography § Spelling-to-sound correspondences.

In some cases, words given as examples for different symbols may sound the same to you. For instance, you might pronouncecot andcaught,do anddew, ormarry andmerry the same. This typically results from dialect variation (see our articlesEnglish phonology andInternational Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects). If so, you will likely pronounce those symbols the same in other words as well.[1] Whether this applies to all words or only in certain contexts depends on the specificsound merger.[2] The footnotes provide further explanation of these cases.

Consonants
IPAExamples
bbuy, cab
ddye, cad, ladder[3]
djdew[4]
dʒjive, badge
ðthy, breathe, father
ffind, leaf
ɡguy, bag
hhigh, ahead
hwwhine[5]
j[6]yes, hallelujah
kkind, sky,crack
llie, ply, gal[7]
ljlute[4]
mmy, smile, cam
nnigh, snide, can
njnew[4]
ŋsang, sink, singer
ppie, spy, cap
r[8]rye, try, very
ssigh, mass
sjconsume[4]
ʃshy, cash, emotion
ttie, sty, cat, latter[3]
tjtune[4]
tʃChina, catch
θthigh, path
θjenthuse[4]
vvie, leave
wwine, swine
zzoo, has
zjZeus, resume[4]
ʒpleasure, beige[9]
Vowels
Strong vowels...followed by R[10]
IPAExamplesIPAExamples
ɑːPALM, bra, fatherɑːrSTART
ɒLOT, bother, cot, blockade[11]ɒrmoral[12]
æ[13]TRAP, bag, sang, tattoo[14]ærmarry[15]
aɪPRICE, pie[16]aɪərhire[17]
aʊMOUTH, how[16]aʊərflour[17]
ɛ[18]DRESS, beg, length, prestigeɛrmerry[15]
eɪFACE, vagueɛərSQUARE, Mary[15][19]
ɪKIT, big, sing, historic[20]ɪrmirror, Sirius
iːFLEECE, league, pedigree, idea[21]ɪərNEAR, serious[19]
oʊ[22]GOAT[20]ɔːrFORCE, hoarse[23]
ɔːTHOUGHT, caught,audacious[24]NORTH, horse[23]
ɔɪCHOICEɔɪərcoir[17]
ʊFOOTʊrcourier
uːGOOSE, cruel[21]ʊərtour,CURE(/ˈkjʊər/)[25][19]
ʌ[26]STRUT, sung,untidy, trustee[27]ɜːrNURSE, blurry,urbane, foreword[28]
ʌrhurry[29]
Weak vowels
IPAExamplesIPAExamples
əCOMMA, abbot, bazaarərLETTER, forward, history[30]
ɪrabbit, bizarre, Latin[20][31]oʊmotto, retroactive, follower[20][32]
iHAPPY, mediocre[33]iəCalifornia[34]
ufruition[32][33]uəinfluence[35]
Syllabic consonants[30]
IPAExamplesIPAExamples
əlbottle, doubling([əl],[l̩], or[l])ənbutton, fastener([ən],[n̩], or[n])
əmrhythm, blossoming([əm],[m̩], or[m])
Marginal segments
IPAExamplesIPAExamples
xloch,Chanukah[36]ʔuh-oh/ˈʌʔoʊ/
ɒ̃bon vivant[37]æ̃fin de siècle[37]
ɜːMöbius(non-rhotic only)[38]
 
Stress[39]Syllabification
IPAExamplesIPAExamples
ˈintonation/ˌɪntəˈneɪʃən/[40]./ˈhaɪər/ hire,/ˈhaɪ.ər/ higher[41]
/ˈtæks.peɪər/ taxpayer
ˌ

Notes

  • Words inSMALL CAPITALS are the standardlexical sets. Not all of the sets are used here. In particular, we excluded words in the lexical setsBATH andCLOTH, which may be given two transcriptions, the former either with/ɑː/ or/æ/, the latter with/ɒ/ or/ɔː/.
  • The length mark ⟨ː⟩ does not mean that the vowels transcribed with it are always longer than those without it. When unstressed, followed by a voiceless consonant, or in apolysyllabic word, a vowel in the former group is frequently shorter than the latter in other environments (seeClipping (phonetics) § English)./i,u/ likewise do not mean shorter versions of/iː,uː/ but represent a situation in which some speakers have/iː,uː/ and others/ɪ,ʊ/ (seeHappy tensing).

Dialect variation

Further information:English phonology andInternational Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects

This key representsdiaphonemes, abstractions of speech sounds that accommodateGeneral American, BritishReceived Pronunciation (RP) and to a large extent alsoAustralian,Canadian,Irish (includingUlster),New Zealand,Scottish,South African andWelsh English pronunciations. Therefore, not all of the distinctions shown here are relevant to a particular dialect.

  • ⟨i⟩ does not represent a phoneme but a variation between/iː/ and/ɪ/ in unstressed positions. Speakers of dialects withhappy tensing (Australian English, General American, modern RP) should read it as an unstressed/iː/, whereas speakers of other dialects (e.g. some Northern England English) should treat it the same as/ɪ/. In Scotland, this vowel can be considered the same as the short allophone of/eɪ/, as intake. Before/ə/ within the same word, another possible pronunciation is/j/ as inyet.
  • Many speakers of American, Canadian, Scottish and Irish English pronouncecot/ˈkɒt/ andcaught/ˈkɔːt/ the same.[k] You may simply ignore the difference between the symbols/ɒ/ and/ɔː/, just as you ignore the distinction between the written vowelso andau when pronouncing them.
  • Most speakers of North American English (with the exception ofEastern New England) do not distinguish between the vowels infather/'fɑːðər/ andbother/'bɒðər/, pronouncing the two words as rhymes. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols/ɑː/ and/ɒ/.
  • Speakers of some rhotic dialects, for instance in Ireland and Scotland, may not distinguish between the vowels ofnear/ˈnɪər/,cure/ˈkjʊər/ andsquare/ˈskwɛər/ on the one hand andfreerunning/ˈfriːrʌnɪŋ/,Q-rating/ˈkjuːreɪtɪŋ/ anddayroom/ˈdeɪruːm/ on the other. If you speak such a dialect, read/ɪər,ʊər,ɛər/ as/iːr,uːr,eɪr/.
  • In Northern Ireland, Scotland and many North American dialects the distinction between/ʊr/ as incourier and the aforementioned/ʊər/ and/uːr/ does not exist. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between/ʊr/,/ʊər/ and/uːr/.
    • In Northern Ireland and Scotland this merger occurs in all environments, which means thatfoot/ˈfʊt/ andgoose/ˈɡuːs/ also have the same vowel.[l][m] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between/ʊ/ and/uː/ in all contexts.
    • In North America, the/ʊr/ ofcourier and the/ʊər/ ofcure may instead merge with/ɔːr/ as innorth or/ɜːr/ as innurse. No such merger is possible in the case of the sequence which we transcribe as/uːr/ as there is an implied morpheme boundary after the length mark.
    • In North American dialects that do not distinguish between/ʊr/,/ʊər/ and/uːr/ there is also no distinction between the/ɪr/ ofmirror and the aforementioned/ɪər/ and/iːr/. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between/ɪr/,/ɪər/ and/iːr/.
    • In many North American dialects there is also no distinction between the vowels inmerry/ˈmɛri/,Mary/ˈmɛəri/ andmarry/ˈmæri/. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between/ɛr/,/ɛər/ and/ær/. Some speakers keepmarry and/ormerry separate from the rest, but in the General American accent all three vowels are the same and may not be distinct from/eɪr/ as indayroom/ˈdeɪruːm/.
    • In rhotic North American English there is no distinction between the vowels innurse/ˈnɜːrs/ andletter/ˈlɛtər/. If you speak such a dialect, read/ɜːr/ as/ər/. The/ʌr/ ofhurry often joins this neutralization; if you have it in your speech, read/ɜːr/,/ər/ and/ʌr/ as/ər/.
  • Some speakers from Northern England do not distinguish the vowel ofsquare/ˈskwɛər/ andnurse/ˈnɜːrs/.[n] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols/ɛər/ and/ɜːr/.
  • In New Zealand English, the vowels ofkit/ˈkɪt/ andfocus/ˈfoʊkəs/ have the sameschwa-like quality.[o][p] If you are from New Zealand, ignore the difference between the symbols/ɪ/ and/ə/.
  • In contemporary New Zealand English and some other dialects, the vowels ofnear/ˈnɪər/ andsquare/ˈskwɛər/ are not distinguished.[q] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols/ɪər/ and/ɛər/.
  • In Northern England English and some varieties of Irish and Welsh English, the vowels offoot/ˈfʊt/ andstrut/ˈstrʌt/ are not distinguished.[r] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols/ʊ/ and/ʌ/.
  • In some varieties of Scottish English and in Northern Irish English, the vowels oftrap/ˈtræp/ andpalm/ˈpɑːm/ are not distinguished.[s] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols/æ/ and/ɑː/.
  • In Welsh English and some other dialects, the vowels ofunorthodoxy/ʌnˈɔːrθədɒksi/ andan orthodoxy/ənˈɔːrθədɒksi/ are not distinguished.[t] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols/ʌ/ and/ə/.
  • Depending on the dialect, vowels can be subject to various mergers before/l/, so that e.g.fill/ˈfɪl/ andfeel/ˈfiːl/ orpull/ˈpʊl/ andpool/ˈpuːl/ may not be distinguished.L-vocalization may trigger even more mergers, so that e.g.cord/ˈkɔːrd/ andcalled/ˈkɔːld/ may be homophonous as/ˈkɔːd/ in non-rhotic dialects of South East England. SeeEnglish-language vowel changes before historic /l/ for more information.
  • In many dialects,/r/ occurs only before a vowel; if you speak such a dialect, simply ignore/r/ in the pronunciation guides where you would not pronounce it, as incart/kɑːrt/.
  • In other dialects,/j/ (yes) cannot occur after/t,d,n/, etc., within the same syllable; if you speak such a dialect, then ignore the/j/ in transcriptions such asnew/njuː/. For example,New York is transcribed/njuːˈjɔːrk/. For most people from England and for some New Yorkers, the/r/ in/jɔːrk/ is not pronounced; for most people from the United States, including some New Yorkers, the/j/ in/njuː/ is not pronounced and may be ignored. (Seeyod-dropping.)

On the other hand, there are some distinctions which you might make but which this key does not encode, as they are seldom reflected in the dictionaries used as sources for Wikipedia articles:

  • The vowels ofkit andbit, distinguished in South Africa.[u] Both of them are transcribed as/ɪ/ in stressed syllables and as/ɪ/ or/ə/ in unstressed syllables.
  • The difference between the vowels offir,fur andfern, maintained in someScottish andIrish English but lost elsewhere.[v] All of them are transcribed as/ɜːr/.
  • The vowels ofnorth andforce, distinguished in Scottish English, Irish English and by a minority of American speakers.[v] Both of them are transcribed as/ɔːr/.
  • The vowels ofpause andpaws, distinguished in Cockney and by some Estuary English speakers.[w] Both of them are transcribed as/ɔː/ when the spelling does not contain⟨r⟩ and/ɔːr/ or/ʊər/ (depending on the word) when it does.
  • The vowels ofmanning andManning, distinguished in some parts of the United States (see/æ/ raising). Both of them are transcribed as/æ/.
  • The difference between the vowels ofpain andpane found in some English, Welsh, and Newfoundland dialects. Both of them are transcribed as/eɪ/.
  • The difference between the vowels oftoe andtow found in some English, Welsh, and Newfoundland dialects. Both of them are transcribed as/oʊ/.
  • The difference between the vowels ofholy andwholly found in Cockney and many Estuary English speakers.[x] Both of them are transcribed as/oʊ/.
  • Anyallophonic distinctions, such as:
    • The vowels ofbad andlad, distinguished in many parts ofAustralia andSouthern England. Both of them are transcribed as/æ/.
    • The vowels ofspider andspied her, distinguished in many parts of Scotland,[y] plus many parts of North America. Both of them are transcribed as/aɪ/.
    • The vowels ofrider andwriter, distinguished in most parts of Canada and many parts of the United States. Both of them are transcribed as/aɪ/.
    • The vowels ofpowder andpouter distinguished in most parts of Canada and some parts of the United States. Both of them are transcribed as/aʊ/.
    • Allophonic vowel length (including theScottish vowel length rule), as inknife/ˈnaɪf/ vs.knives/ˈnaɪvz/. Phonemic vowel length, which exists in some dialects and involves pairs such as/ɛ/ vs./ɛər/ and/ə/ vs./ɜːr/ is also not marked explicitly./i/ and/u/ do not represent phonemes; see above.
    • Flapping in words such asbetter, which we write/ˈbɛtər/, rather than/ˈbɛdər/.
    • Glottalization in words such asjetlag and, in some accents,daughter, which we write/ˈdʒɛtlæɡ/ and/ˈdɔːtər/, rather than/ˈdʒɛʔlæɡ/ and/ˈdɔːʔər/. In this system,/ʔ/ is used only forparalanguage or in loanwords where it occurs phonemically in the original language.
    • L-vocalization in words such asbottle andAlps, which we write/ˈbɒtəl/ and/ˈælps/, rather than/ˈbɒtʊ/ and/ˈæwps/.
    • The difference between allophones of/ə/ inbalance ([ə]) vs. the ones inabout andRussia (and, in non-rhotic dialects,better), both of which may be closer to/ʌ/ in dialects with the foot–strut split (that is,[ɐ]) vs. the one inbutton (thesyllabicity of the following consonant). All are transcribed as/ə/ in our system.
    • The difference between the phonetic realization of English sounds (mostly vowels) in various dialects.Let's pick some grapes for Betty should be transcribed/lɛtsˈpɪksəmˈɡreɪpsfərˈbɛti/ regardless of the variety of English and everyone should interpret that transcription according to their own dialect. Thus, a person from South East England will read it as something like[lɛʔsˈpʰɪksəmˈɡɹɛɪpsfəˈbɛtˢɪi], a Scot as[ɫɛtsˈpʰɪksəmˈɡɾepsfɚˈbɛte], whereas someone from New Zealand will interpret that transcription as[ɫɪtsˈpʰəksəmˈɡɹæɪpsfəˈbɪɾi]. Because we are transcribingdiaphonemes rather thanphones (actual sounds), it is irrelevant that, for example, the vowel inlet's as pronounced by someone from New Zealand overlaps with how people with England and Scotland typically pronounce the first vowel inpick, or that the Scottish realization of/r/ after/ɡ/ overlaps with the New Zealand realization of/t/ between vowels. In other words, the symbol ⟨ɛ⟩ does not stand specifically for theopen-mid front unrounded vowel in our system butany vowel that can be identified as the vowel inlet's, depending on the accent. This is also why we use the simple symbol ⟨r⟩ for the second sound ingrapes.

Other words may have different vowels depending on the speaker.

For more extensive information on dialect variations, you may wish to see theIPA chart for English dialects.

Note that place names are not generally exempted from being transcribed in this abstracted system, so rules such as the above must be applied in order to recover the local pronunciation. Examples include place names in much of England ending-‍ford, which although locally pronounced[-fəd] are transcribed/-fərd/. This is best practice for editors. However, readers should be aware that not all editors may have followed this consistently, so for example if/-fəd/ is encountered for such a place name, it should not be interpreted as a claim that the/r/ would be absent even in arhotic dialect.

Other transcriptions

If you feel it is necessary to add a pronunciation respelling using another convention, then please use the conventions ofWikipedia's pronunciation respelling key.

  • To compare the following IPA symbols with non-IPA American dictionary conventions that may be more familiar, seePronunciation respelling for English, which lists the pronunciation guides of fourteen English dictionaries published in the United States.
  • To compare the following IPA symbols with other IPA conventions that may be more familiar, seeHelp:IPA/Conventions for English, which lists the conventions of eight English dictionaries published in Britain, Australia, and the United States.

See also

Notes

  1. ^This rule is generally employed in the pronunciation guide of our articles, even for local terms such as place names. However, be aware that not all editors may have followed this consistently, so for example if a pronunciation of an English town ending in ‑ford reads /‑fəd/, it doesn't mean that the /r/ would be absent in a rhotic dialect.
  2. ^For example, if you have themarry–merry merger, you probably only merge/æ/ and/ɛ/ before/r/. You would still distinguishman andmen.
  3. ^abIn varieties withflapping,/t/ and sometimes also/d/ between a vowel and a weak or word-initial vowel may be pronounced with a voiced tap[ɾ], makinglatter sound similar or identical toladder. Some dictionaries transcribe/t/ subject to this process as ⟨d⟩ or ⟨t̬⟩, but they are not distinguished in this transcription system. In those varieties, the sequence/nt/ in the same environment may also be realized as anasalized tap[ɾ̃], makingwinter sound similar or identical towinner. This is also not distinguished in this system.
  4. ^abcdefgIn dialects withyod dropping,/j/ in/juː/,/ju/, or/jʊər/ is not pronounced aftercoronal consonants (/t/,/d/,/s/,/z/,/n/,/θ/, and/l/) in the same syllable, so thatdew/djuː/ is pronounced the same asdo/duː/. In dialects withyod coalescence,/tj/ and/dj/ mostly merge with/tʃ/ and/dʒ/, so thatdew/djuː/ is pronounced the same asJew/dʒuː/. In some dialects/sj/ and/zj/ are also affected and frequently merge with/ʃ/ and/ʒ/. Where/j/ in/juː/,/ju/, or/jʊər/ following a coronal is still pronounced in yod-dropping accents, place a syllable break before it:menu/ˈmɛn.juː/.
  5. ^The phoneme/hw/ is not distinguished from/w/ in the many dialects with thewine–whine merger, such as RP and most varieties of General American. For more information on this sound, seevoiceless labialized velar approximant.
  6. ^The IPA value of the letter ⟨j⟩ may be counterintuitive to English speakers, but the spelling is found even in some common English words likehallelujah andfjord. Some dictionaries use ⟨y⟩ instead, although it represents aclose front rounded vowel in official IPA.
  7. ^/l/ in thesyllable coda, as in the wordsall,cold, orbottle, is pronounced as[o],[u],[w] or a similar sound in many dialects throughL-vocalization.
  8. ^In most varieties of English,/r/ is pronounced as avoiced postalveolar approximant ⟨ɹ̠⟩. Although the IPA symbol ⟨r⟩ represents thealveolar trill, ⟨r⟩ is widely used instead of ⟨ɹ̠⟩ in broad transcriptions of English for convenience.
  9. ^A number of English words, such asgenre andgarage, may be pronounced with either/ʒ/ or/dʒ/.
  10. ^Innon-rhotic accents like RP,/r/ is not pronounced unless followed by a vowel.
  11. ^In dialects with thefather–bother merger such as General American,/ɒ/ is not distinguished from/ɑː/.
  12. ^In most of the United States,/ɒr/ is merged with/ɔːr/, except for a handful of words such asborrow,tomorrow andsorry, which instead have/ɑːr/. In some parts of the Southern and Northeastern US, it is always merged with/ɑːr/. In Canada, it is always merged with/ɔːr/.
  13. ^Some British sources, such as theOxford English Dictionary, use ⟨a⟩ instead of/æ/ to transcribe this vowel. This more closely reflects the actual vowel quality in contemporaryReceived Pronunciation.[a]
  14. ^In North America,/æ/ is often pronounced like a diphthong[eə~ɛə] before nasal consonants and, in some particular regional dialects, other environments. See/æ/ raising.
  15. ^abcMany North American accents have theMary–marry–merry merger and therefore don't distinguish between the corresponding sounds/ɛər/,/ær/, and/ɛr/. Some speakers merge only two of the sounds (most typically/ɛər/ with one of the short vowels), and less than a fifth of speakers of American English make a full three-way distinction like in RP and similar accents.[b]
  16. ^abIn much of North America,/aɪ/ or/aʊ/ may have a slightly different quality when it precedes avoiceless consonant, as inprice ormouth, from that inride/pie orloud/how, a phenomenon known asCanadian raising. Since this occurs in a predictable fashion, it is not distinguished in this transcription system.
  17. ^abcSome speakers pronouncehigher, flower andcoyer ("more coy") with two syllables, andhire, flour andcoir with one. Most pronounce them the same. For the former group of words, make use of syllable breaks, as in/ˈhaɪ.ər/,/ˈflaʊ.ər/,/ˈkɔɪ.ər/, to differentiate from the latter. Before vowels, the distinction between/aɪər,aʊər,ɔɪər/ and/aɪr,aʊr,ɔɪr/ is not always clear; choose the former if the second element may be omitted (as in[ˈdaəri]diary).
  18. ^/ɛ/ is transcribed with ⟨e⟩ in many dictionaries. However,/eɪ/ is also sometimes transcribed with ⟨e⟩, especially in North American literature, so ⟨ɛ⟩ is chosen here.
  19. ^abc/ɛə/,/ɪə/, or/ʊə/ may be separated from/r/ only when a stress follows it. TheIPAc-en template supports/ɛəˈr/,/ɪəˈr/,/ʊəˈr/,/ɛəˌr/,/ɪəˌr/, and/ʊəˌr/ as distinct diaphonemes for such occasions.
  20. ^abcd⟨ɪ⟩ and ⟨oʊ⟩ represent strong vowels in some words and weak vowels in others. It will not always be clear which they are.[c][d]
  21. ^abWords likeidea, real, andtheatre may be pronounced with/ɪə/ andcruel with/ʊə/ in non-rhotic accents such as Received Pronunciation, and some dictionaries transcribe them with/ɪə,ʊə/,[e] but since they are not pronounced with/r/ in rhotic accents, they are transcribed with/iːə,uːə/, not with/ɪə,ʊə/, in this transcription system.
  22. ^/oʊ/ is often transcribed with ⟨əʊ⟩, particularly in British literature, based on its modern realization in Received Pronunciation. It is also transcribed with ⟨o⟩, particularly in North American literature.
  23. ^abSome accents, such asScottish English, many forms ofIrish English and some conservativeAmerican accents, make a distinction between the vowels inhorse andhoarse (i.e. they lack thehorse–hoarse merger). Since most modern dictionaries do not differentiate between them, neither does this key.
  24. ^/ɔː/ is not distinguished from/ɒ/ in dialects with thecot–caught merger such as Scottish English, Canadian English and many varieties of General American. In North America, the two vowels most often fall together with/ɑː/.
  25. ^/ʊər/ is not distinguished from/ɔːr/ in dialects with thecure–force merger, including many younger speakers. In England, the merger may not be fully consistent and may only apply to more common words. In conservative RP and Northern England English/ʊər/ is much more commonly preserved than in modern RP and Southern England English. In Australia and New Zealand,/ʊər/ does not exist as a separate phoneme and is replaced either by the sequence/uːər/ (/uːr/ before vowels within the same word, save for some compounds) or the monophthong/ɔːr/.
  26. ^Some, particularly North American, dictionaries notate/ʌ/ with the same symbol as/ə/, which is found only in unstressed syllables, and distinguish it from/ə/ by marking the syllable as stressed. Also note that although ⟨ʌ⟩, the IPA symbol for theopen-mid back vowel, is used, the typical modern pronunciation is rather close to thenear-open central vowel[ɐ] in some dialects, including Received Pronunciation.
  27. ^/ʌ/ is not used in the dialects of the northern half of England and some parts of Ireland and Wales. These words would take the/ʊ/ vowel: there is nofoot–strut split.
  28. ^In Received Pronunciation,/ɜːr/ is pronounced as a lengthened schwa,[əː]. In General American, it is phonetically identical to/ər/. Some dictionaries therefore use ⟨əː,ər⟩ instead of the conventional notations ⟨ɜː,ɜr⟩. When ⟨ər⟩ is used for/ɜːr/, it is distinguished from/ər/ by marking the syllable as stressed.
  29. ^/ʌr/ is not distinguished from/ɜːr/ in dialects with thehurry–furry merger such as General American.
  30. ^abIn a number of contexts,/ə/ in/ər/,/əl/,/ən/, or/əm/ is often omitted, resulting in a syllable with no vowel. Some dictionaries show/ə/ in those contexts in parentheses, superscript, or italics to indicate this possibility, or simply omit/ə/. When followed by a weak vowel, the syllable may be lost altogether, with the consonant moving to the next syllable, so thatdoubling/ˈdʌb.əl.ɪŋ/ may alternatively be pronounced as[ˈdʌb.lɪŋ], andEdinburgh/ˈɛd.ɪn.bər.ə/ as[ˈɛd.ɪn.brə].[i] When not followed by a vowel,/ər/ merges with/ə/ in non-rhotic accents.
  31. ^⟨ɪ⟩ represents a strong vowel in some contexts and a weak vowel in others. In accents with theweak vowel merger such as most Australian and American accents, weak/ɪ/ is not distinguished from schwa/ə/, makingrabbit andabbot rhyme andLenin andLennon homophonous. (Pairs likeroses andRosa's are kept distinct in American accents because of the difference in morphological structure,[f] but may be homophonous in Australian.[g]) In these accents, weak/ɪl,ɪn,ɪm/ merge with/əl,ən,əm/, so that the second vowel inLatin may be lost andcabinet may be disyllabic (see the previous note).
  32. ^ab/oʊ/ and/u/ in unstressed, prevocalic positions are transcribed as/əw/ by Merriam-Webster, but no other dictionary uniformly follows this practice.[h] Hence the difference between/əw/ in Merriam-Webster and/oʊ/ or/u/ in another source is most likely one in notation, not in pronunciation, so/əw/ in such cases may be better replaced with/oʊ/ or/u/ accordingly, to minimize confusion:/ˌsɪtʃəˈweɪʃən/ →/ˌsɪtʃuˈeɪʃən/,/ˈfɒləwər/ →/ˈfɒloʊər/.
  33. ^ab⟨i⟩ represents variation between/iː/ and/ɪ/ in unstressed prevocalic or morpheme-final positions. It is realized with a quality closer to/iː/ in accents withhappy tensing, such as Australian English, General American, and modern RP, and to/ɪ/ in others. ⟨u⟩ likewise represents variation between/uː/ and/ʊ/ in unstressed prevocalic positions.
  34. ^The sequence ⟨iə⟩ may be pronounced as two syllables,[i.ə] or[ɪ.ə], or as one,[jə] or[ɪə̯]. When pronounced as one syllable in a non-rhotic accent, it may be indistinguishable from, and identified as, theNEAR vowel (/ɪər/).[e] This transcription system uses ⟨iə⟩, not ⟨i.ə⟩, ⟨jə⟩, ⟨ɪə⟩, etc., to cover all these possibilities.
  35. ^The sequence ⟨uə⟩ may be pronounced as two syllables,[u.ə] or[ʊ.ə], or as one,[wə] or[ʊə̯]. When pronounced as one syllable in a non-rhotic accent, it may be indistinguishable from, and identified as, theCURE vowel (/ʊər/).[e] This transcription system uses ⟨uə⟩, not ⟨u.ə⟩, ⟨wə⟩, ⟨ʊə⟩, etc., to cover all these possibilities.
  36. ^In most dialects,/x/ can also be replaced by/k/ in most words, includingloch. It is also replaced with/h/ in some words, particularly of Yiddish origin, such asChanukah.
  37. ^ab/ɒ̃,æ̃/ are only found in French loanwords and often replaced by another vowel and a nasal consonant:bon vivant/ˌbɒnviːˈvɒnt/,ensemble/ɒnˈsɒmbəl/, etc.[j]
  38. ^/ɜː/ is only found in loanwords and represents a situation where such anr-less vowel is used only in British or Southern Hemisphere accents, and therefore a transcription that includes it must always be prefaced with a label indicating the variety of English. Ifr-fulNURSE is used in GA too, even if spelled without⟨r⟩, as inGoethe andhors d'oeuvre, use/ɜːr/./ɜː/ is also not the same as⟨œ⟩ seen in some American dictionaries.⟨œ⟩ in those dictionaries is merely a notational convention and does not correspond to any vowel in any accent of English, so a transcription containing⟨œ⟩ cannot be converted to one that uses this key.
  39. ^The IPA stress marks, ⟨ˈ⟩ and ⟨ˌ⟩, comebefore the syllable that has the stress, in contrast to stress marking inpronunciation keys of some dictionaries published in the United States.
  40. ^Scholars disagree on how to analyzedegrees of stress in English. A particular unstressed syllable with phonetic prominence or afull (unreduced) vowel is analyzed by some scholars as having secondary stress. For simplicity, we follow British rather than American English conventions, only marking secondary stress when it occurs before, not after, the primary stress.
  41. ^Syllable divisions are not usually marked, but the IPA dot ⟨.⟩ may be used when it is wished to make explicit where a division between syllables is (or may be) made.

References

  1. ^"British English Pronunciations".Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved4 September 2023.
  2. ^Vaux, Bert; Golder, Scott (2003)."How do you pronounce Mary/merry/marry?".Harvard Dialect Survey. Harvard University Linguistics Department.
  3. ^Flemming & Johnson (2007), pp. 91–2.
  4. ^Wells, John (25 March 2011)."strong and weak".John Wells's phonetic blog.
  5. ^abcWells (1982), p. 240.
  6. ^Flemming & Johnson (2007), pp. 94–5.
  7. ^Wells (1982), p. 601.
  8. ^Windsor Lewis, Jack (10 April 2009)."The Elephant in the Room".PhonetiBlog. Archived fromthe original on 6 March 2025.
  9. ^Wells (2008), pp. 173, 799.
  10. ^Jones (2011).
  11. ^Wells (1982), pp. 473–6, 493, 499.
  12. ^Stuart-Smith (2004), p. 58.
  13. ^Corrigan (2010), pp. 33–5.
  14. ^Wells (1982), pp. 361, 372.
  15. ^Wells (1982), pp. 605–7.
  16. ^Bauer et al. (2007), pp. 98–9.
  17. ^Bauer et al. (2007), p. 98.
  18. ^Wells (1982), pp. 351–3, 363–4.
  19. ^Wells (1982), pp. 400, 439.
  20. ^Wells (1982), pp. 380–1.
  21. ^Wells (1982), pp. 612–3.
  22. ^abStuart-Smith (2004), p. 56.
  23. ^Wells (1982), pp. 304, 310–1.
  24. ^Wells (1982), pp. 304, 312–3.
  25. ^Stuart-Smith (2004), p. 57.

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