This article is about the alphabet derived from the Aramaic alphabet (135 CE – present). For the original Hebrew alphabet derived directly from the Phoenician alphabet (10th century BCE – 135 CE), seePaleo-Hebrew alphabet. For the descendant script of the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet, seeSamaritan script. For the insect, seeHebrew character.
Variousstyles (in current terms,fonts) of representation of the Jewish script letters described in this article also exist, including a variety ofcursive Hebrew styles. In the remainder of this article, the termHebrew alphabet refers to the square script unless otherwise indicated.
The Hebrew alphabet has 22 letters. It does not havecase. Five letters have different forms when used at the end of a word. Hebrew iswritten from right to left. Originally, the alphabet was an abjad consisting only ofconsonants, but is now considered animpure abjad. As with other abjads, such as theArabic alphabet, during its centuries-long use scribes devised means of indicatingvowel sounds by separate vowel points, known in Hebrew asniqqud. In both biblical and rabbinic Hebrew, the lettersיוהא can also function asmatres lectionis, which is when certain consonants are used to indicate vowels. There is a trend inModern Hebrew towards the use ofmatres lectionis to indicate vowels that have traditionally gone unwritten, a practice known asfull spelling.
TheYiddish alphabet, a modified version of the Hebrew alphabet used to write Yiddish, is a true alphabet, with all vowels rendered in the spelling, except in the case of inherited Hebrew words, which typically retain their Hebrew consonant-only spellings.
The Arabic and Hebrew alphabets have similarities inacrophony because it is said that they are both derived from the Aramaic alphabet, which in turn derives from thePhoenician alphabet, both being slight regional variations of theProto-Canaanite alphabet used in ancient times to write the variousCanaanite languages (including Hebrew, Moabite, Phoenician, Punic, et cetera).
The Paleo-Hebrew alphabet was used in the ancient kingdoms ofIsrael andJudah. Following theBabylonian exile of the Kingdom of Judah in the 6th century BCE,Jews began using a form of theImperial Aramaic alphabet, another offshoot of the same family of scripts, which flourished during theAchaemenid Empire (and which in turn had been adopted from theAssyrians). TheSamaritans, who remained in the Land of Israel, continued to use the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. During the 3rd century BCE (after the end of the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BCE), Jews began to use a stylized, "square" form of the Imperial Aramaic alphabet,[15] while the Samaritans continued to use a form of the Paleo-Hebrew script called theSamaritan alphabet. For a few centuries, Jews used both scripts (although use of Paleo-Hebrew was limited then) before eventually, after the 1st century BCE, settling on the square Assyrian form.[citation needed]
The square Hebrew alphabet was later adapted and used for writing languages of theJewish diaspora – such asKaraim, theJudeo-Arabic languages, Judaeo-Spanish, and Yiddish. The Hebrew alphabet continued in use for scholarly writing in Hebrew and came again into everyday use with the rebirth of the Hebrew language as a spoken language in the 18th and 19th centuries, especially inIsrael.[citation needed]
In the traditional form, the Hebrew alphabet is anabjad consisting only ofconsonants,written from right to left. It has 22 letters, five of which use different forms at the end of a word.
In the traditional form, vowels are indicated by the weakconsonantsAleph (א),He (ה),Waw/Vav (ו), orYodh (י) serving as vowel letters, ormatres lectionis: the letter is combined with a previous vowel and becomes silent, or by imitation of such cases in the spelling of other forms. Also, a system of vowel points to indicate vowels (diacritics), calledniqqud, was developed. In modern forms of the alphabet, as in the case ofYiddish and to some extentModern Hebrew,vowels may be indicated. Today, the trend is towardfull spelling with the weak letters acting as true vowels.
When used towrite Yiddish, vowels are indicated, using certain letters, either with niqqud diacritics (e.g.אָ orיִ) or without (e.g.ע orי), except for Hebrew words, which in Yiddish are written in their Hebrew spelling.
To preserve the proper vowel sounds, scholars developed several different sets of vocalization and diacritical symbols callednequdot (נקודות, literally "points"). One of these, theTiberian system, eventually prevailed.Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, and his family for several generations, are credited for refining and maintaining the system. These points are normally used only for special purposes, such asBiblical books intended for study, inpoetry or when teaching the language to children. The Tiberian system also includes a set ofcantillation marks, calledtrope orte'amim, used to indicate how scriptural passages should be chanted in synagogue recitations of scripture (although these marks do not appear in the scrolls). In everyday writing of modern Hebrew,niqqud are absent; however, patterns of how words are derived fromHebrew roots (calledshorashim ortriliterals) allow Hebrew speakers to determine the vowel-structure of a given word from its consonants based on the word's context and part of speech.
Unlike the Paleo-Hebrew writing script, the modern Hebrew script has fiveletters that have specialfinal forms,[c] calledsofit (Hebrew:סופית, meaning in this context "final" or "ending") form, used only at the end of a word, somewhat as in theGreek or in theArabic andMandaic alphabets.[b] These are shown below the normal form in the following table (letter names areUnicode standard[16][17]). Although Hebrew is read and written from right to left, the following table shows the letters in order from left to right:
A reversal tope-ayin can be clearly seen in theBook of Lamentations, whose first four chapters are ordered as alphabetical acrostics. In theMasoretic Text, the first chapter has the now-usualayin-pe ordering, and the second, third and fourth chapters exhibitpe-ayin.[21] In theDead Sea Scrolls version (4QLam/4Q111), reversed ordering also appears in the first chapter (i.e. in all the first four chapters).[22] The fact that these chapters follow the pre-exilicpe-ayin order is evidence for them being written shortly after the events described, rather than being later, post-exilic compositions.[23][24][25]
By analogy with the other dotted/dotless pairs, dotless tav,ת, would be expected to be pronounced /θ/ (voiceless dental fricative), and dotless daletד as /ð/ (voiced dental fricative), but these were lost among most Jews due to these sounds not existing in the countries where they lived (such as in nearly all of Eastern Europe). Yiddish modified /θ/ to /s/ (cf.seseo in Spanish), but in modern Israeli Hebrew, it is simply pronounced /t/. Likewise, historical /ð/ is simply pronounced /d/.[citation needed]
Shin andsin are represented by the same letter,ש, but are two separatephonemes. When vowel diacritics are used, the two phonemes are differentiated with ashin-dot orsin-dot; theshin-dot is above the upper-right side of the letter, and thesin-dot is above the upper-left side of the letter.[citation needed]
Historically, the consonantsבbet,גgimmel,דdaleth,כkaf,פpe andתtav each had two sounds: one hard (plosive), and one soft (fricative), depending on the position of the letter and other[which?] factors. When vowel diacritics are used, the hard sounds are indicated by a central dot calleddagesh (דגש), while the soft sounds lack adagesh. In modern Hebrew, however, thedagesh only changes the pronunciation ofבbet,כkaf, andפpe, and does not affect the name of the letter. The differences are as follows:
The sounds[t͡ʃ],[d͡ʒ],[ʒ], written ⟨צ׳⟩, ⟨ג׳⟩, ⟨ז׳⟩, and[w], non-standardly sometimes transliterated ⟨וו⟩, are often found in slang and loanwords that are part of the everyday Hebrew colloquial vocabulary. The symbol resembling an apostrophe after the Hebrew letter modifies the pronunciation of the letter and is called ageresh.
The pronunciation of the following letters can also be modified with the geresh diacritic. The represented sounds are however foreign toHebrew phonology, i.e., these symbols mainly represent sounds in foreign words or names when transliterated with the Hebrew alphabet, and notloanwords.
Unlike the other sounds in this table, the sound[χ] represented byח׳ is indeed a native sound in Hebrew; the geresh is however used only when transliteration must distinguish between[χ] and[ħ], in which caseח׳ transliterates the former and ח the latter, whereas in everyday usage ח without geresh is pronounced[ħ] only dialectically but[χ] commonly.
The guidelines specified by the Academy of the Hebrew Language prefer Resh with a geresh (ר׳); however, this guideline is not universally followed
Geresh is also used to denote an abbreviation consisting of a single Hebrew letter, whilegershayim (a doubledgeresh) are used to denoteacronyms pronounced as a string of letters;geresh andgershayim are also used to denoteHebrew numerals consisting of a single Hebrew letter or of multiple Hebrew letters, respectively. Geresh is also the name of a cantillation mark used forTorah recitation, though its visual appearance and function are different in that context.
In much ofIsrael's general population, especially whereAshkenazic pronunciation is prevalent, many letters have the same pronunciation. They are as follows:
Letters
Transliteration
Pronunciation (IPA)
א Alef*
ע Ayin*
not transliterated
Usually when in medial word position: /./ (separation of vowels in ahiatus)
In initial, final, or sometimes medial word position: silent
Some of the variations in sound mentioned above are due to a systematic feature of Ancient Hebrew. The six consonants/bɡdkpt/ were pronounced differently depending on their position. These letters were also calledBeGeD KeFeT letters/ˌbeɪɡɛdˈkɛfɛt/. The full details are very complex; this summary omits some points. They were pronounced asplosives[bɡdkpt] at the beginning of a syllable, or when doubled. They were pronounced asfricatives[vɣðxfθ] when preceded by a vowel (sometimes indicated with a macron, ḇ ḡ ḏ ḵ p̄ ṯ). The plosive and double pronunciations were indicated by thedagesh. In Modern Hebrew the sounds ḏ and ḡ have reverted to[d] and[ɡ], respectively, and ṯ has become[t], so only the remaining three consonants/bkp/ show variation.רresh may have also been a "doubled" letter, making the listBeGeD KePoReT. (Sefer Yetzirah, 4:1)
The following table contains thepronunciation of the Hebrew letters in reconstructed historical forms anddialects using theInternational Phonetic Alphabet. The apostrophe-looking symbol after some letters is not ayud but ageresh. It is used for loanwords with non-native Hebrew sounds. The dot in the middle of some of the letters, called adagesh kal, also modifies the sounds of the lettersב,כ andפ inmodern Hebrew (in some forms of Hebrew it modifies also the sounds of the lettersג,ד and/orת; thedagesh chazak – orthographically indistinguishable from thedagesh kal – designatesgemination, which today is realized only rarely – e.g. in biblical recitations or when usingArabicloanwords).
אalef,עayin,וwaw/vav andיyod are letters that can sometimes indicate a vowel instead of a consonant (which would be, respectively,/ʔ/,/ʕ/,/v/and/j/). When they do,ו andי are considered to constitute part of the vowel designation in combination with a niqqud symbol – a vowel diacritic (whether or not the diacritic is marked), whereasא andע are considered to be mute, their role being purely indicative of the non-marked vowel.
Niqqud is the system of dots that help determine vowels and consonants. In Hebrew, all forms ofniqqud are often omitted in writing, except for children's books, prayer books, poetry, foreign words, and words which would be ambiguous to pronounce. Israeli Hebrew has five vowel phonemes,/ieaou/, but many more written symbols for them:
Note 1: The circle represents whatever Hebrew letter is used. Note 2: The pronunciation oftsere and sometimessegol – with or without the letteryod – is sometimesei in Modern Hebrew. This is not correct in the normative pronunciation and not consistent in the spoken language.[31] Note 3: Thedagesh,mappiq, andshuruk have different functions, even though they look the same. Note 4: The letterו (waw/vav) is used since it can only be represented by that letter.
By adding a vertical line (calledMeteg) underneath the letter and to the left of the vowel point, the vowel is made long. Themeteg is only used inBiblical Hebrew, notModern Hebrew.
By adding two vertical dots (calledsh'va) underneath the letter, the vowel is made very short. When sh'va is placed on the first letter of the word, mostly it is "è" (but in some instances, it makes the first letter silent without a vowel (vowel-less): e.g.וְwè to "w").
The symbol״ is called agershayim and is a punctuation mark used in the Hebrew language to denote acronyms. It is written before the last letter in the acronym, e.g.ר״ת.Gershayim is also the name of acantillation mark in the reading of theTorah, printed above the accented letter, e.g.א֞.
The following table displays typographic and chirographic variants of each letter. For the letters that have different forms in word-final position, the final forms are displayed beneath the regular forms.
The block (square, orprint form) and cursive (handwritten form) are the only variants in widespread contemporary use. Rashi is also used, for historical reasons, in a handful of standard texts.
TheYiddish ligature: these forms are intended forYiddish. (They are not used in Hebrew, aside from in loan words[d].) Visually, they can be recreated using a sequence of letters,וו וי יי, except when a diacritic is inserted underneath: it does not appear in the middle.
בֿ
Therafe (רפה)diacritic is no longer regularly used in Hebrew. InMasoretic Texts and some other older texts,lenited consonants and sometimesmatres lectionis are indicated by a small line on top of the letter. Its use has been largely discontinued in modern printed texts. It is still used to mark fricative consonants in theYIVO orthography ofYiddish.
Following the adoption of Greek Hellenistic alphabetic numeration practice, Hebrew letters started being used to denote numbers in the late 2nd century BCE,[33] and performed this arithmetic function for about a thousand years.Nowadays alphanumeric notation is used only in specific contexts, e.g. denoting dates in theHebrew calendar, denoting grades of school in Israel, other listings (e.g.שלב א׳,שלב ב׳ – "phase a, phase b"), commonly inKabbalah (Jewishmysticism) in a practice known asgematria, and often in religious contexts.[citation needed]
The lower clock on theJewish Town Hall building inPrague, with Hebrew numerals in counterclockwise order.
The numbers 500, 600, 700, 800 and 900 are commonly represented by the juxtapositionsת״ק,ת״ר,ת״ש,ת״ת, andתת״ק respectively.Adding ageresh ⟨׳⟩ to a letter multiplies its value by one thousand, for example, the year 5778 is portrayed asה׳תשע״ח, whereה׳ represents 5000, andתשע״ח represents 778.[citation needed]
The following table lists transliterations and transcriptions of Hebrew letters used inModern Hebrew.
Clarifications:
For some letters, theAcademy of the Hebrew Language offers aprecise transliteration that differs from theregular standard it has set. When omitted, no such precise alternative exists and the regular standard applies.
TheIPAphonemic transcription is specified whenever it uses a different symbol from the one used for theregular standard Israeli transliteration.
TheIPAphonetic transcription is specified whenever it differs from IPAphonemic transcription.
Note:SBL's transliteration system, recommended in itsHandbook of Style,[34] differs slightly from the 2006precise transliteration system of the Academy of the Hebrew Language; for ⟨צ⟩ SBL uses ⟨ṣ⟩ (≠ AHL ⟨ẓ⟩), and forבג״ד כפ״ת with no dagesh, SBL uses the same symbols as for with dagesh (i.e. ⟨b⟩, ⟨g⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨k⟩, ⟨f⟩, ⟨t⟩).
Click "show" to view extended table including examples.
A1^ 2^ 3^ 4^In transliterations of modern Israeli Hebrew, initial and finalע (in regular transliteration), silent or initialא, and silentה arenot transliterated. To the eye of readers orientating themselves on Latin (or similar) alphabets, these letters might seem to be transliterated as vowel letters; however, these are in fact transliterations of the vowel diacritics – niqqud (or are representations of the spoken vowels). E.g., inאִם ("if",[ʔim]),אֵם ("mother",[ʔe̞m]) andאֹם ("nut",[ʔo̞m]), the letterא always represents the same consonant:[ʔ] (glottal stop), whereas the vowels /i/, /e/ and /o/ respectively represent the spoken vowel, whether it is orthographically denoted by diacritics or not. Since the Academy of the Hebrew Language ascertains thatא in initial position is not transliterated, the symbol for the glottal stop ʾ is omitted from the transliteration, and only the subsequent vowels are transliterated (whether or not their corresponding vowel diacritics appeared in the text being transliterated), resulting in "im", "em" and "om", respectively.
B1^ 2^ 3^Thediacriticgeresh ⟨׳⟩ is used with some other letters as well (ד׳,ח׳,ט׳,ע׳,ר׳,ת׳), but only to transliteratefrom other languagesto Hebrew – never to spell Hebrew words; therefore they were not included in this table (correctly translating a Hebrew text with these letters would require using the spelling in the language from which the transliteration to Hebrew was originally made). The non-standard ⟨ו׳⟩ and ⟨וו⟩[e1] are sometimes used to represent/w/, which like/d͡ʒ/,/ʒ/ and/t͡ʃ/ appears in Hebrew slang and loanwords.
C1^ 2^The sound/χ/ (as ⟨ch⟩ inloch) is often transcribed ⟨ch⟩, inconsistently with the guidelines specified by the Academy of the Hebrew Language:חם/χam/ → "cham";סכך/sχaχ/ → "schach".
D^Although the Bible does include a single occurrence of a final pe with a dagesh (Book of Proverbs 30, 6:אַל-תּוֹסְףְּ עַל-דְּבָרָיו: פֶּן-יוֹכִיחַ בְּךָ וְנִכְזָבְתָּ.), in modern Hebrew/p/ is always represented bype in its regular, not final, formפ, even when in word-final position, which occurs with loanwords (e.g.שׁוֹפּ/ʃop/ "shop"), foreign names (e.g.פִילִיפּ/ˈfilip/ "Philip") and some slang (e.g.חָרַפּ/χaˈrap/ "slept deeply").
The signet ring of God is “Emess” (Truth), which contains the first, middle, and last of the Hebrew Alphabet; for God is within everything, surrounds everything, and nothing is outside of Him
The letters of the Hebrew alphabet have played varied roles in Jewish religious literature over the centuries, primarily in mystical texts. Some sources[which?] in classicalrabbinical literature seem to acknowledge the historical provenance of the currently used Hebrew alphabet and deal with them as a mundane subject (theJerusalem Talmud, for example, records that "the Israelites took for themselves square calligraphy", and that the letters "came with the Israelites from Ashur [Assyria]");[36] others[which?] attribute mystical significance to the letters, connecting them with the process of creation orthe redemption. In mystical conceptions, the alphabet is considered eternal, pre-existent to the Earth, and the letters themselves are seen as having holiness and power, sometimes to such an extent that several stories from theTalmud illustrate the idea that they cannot be destroyed.[37]
The idea of the letters' creative power finds its greatest vehicle in theSefer Yezirah, orBook of Creation, a mystical text of uncertain origin which describes a story of creation highly divergent from that in theBook of Genesis, largely through exposition on the powers of the letters of the alphabet: the letters are connected with the planets of universe, the astrology, with all parts of human-body and their “cause-effect reactions”, theSefirot and the ways of spiritual and material life; so Bereshit Rabbah,[38] theMidrash ofGenesis, teaches that God did the world with his wisdom, that is theTorah with the letters of Hebrew. InKabbalah all letters had the symbolic value that could be studied with trascendent exegesis, i.e. the “sod” ofPardes;[39] the created things (mineral, vegetal, animal and human levels of this world) have hebrew names which conceal their essential nature,[40] like the first manAdam who was knowing all names of all animals.[41] The supposed creative powers of the letters are also referenced in the Talmud andZohar.[42][43]
Another book, the 13th-centuryKabbalistic textSefer HaTemunah, holds that a single letter of unknown pronunciation, held by some to be the four-pronged shin on one side of theteffilin box, is missing from the current alphabet. The world's flaws, the book teaches, are related to the absence of this letter, the eventual revelation of which willrepair the universe.[44] Another example of messianic significance attached to the letters is the teaching of Rabbi Eliezer that the five letters of the alphabet with distinct final forms hold the "secret of redemption".[44]
In addition, the letters occasionally feature inaggadic portions of non-mystical rabbinic literature. In such aggada the letters are often givenanthropomorphic qualities and depicted as speaking to God. Commonly their shapes are used in parables to illustrate points of ethics or theology. An example from theBabylonian Talmud (a parable intended to discourage speculation about the universe before creation); there is a discussion about this in “Kabbalah-texts”: this Creation was created at first time only with Genesis, not before.[45] So great Rabbanim explain that God has to create the universe in a moment that we don’t know why… before or after. God has not time, that is a category of material world, so we cannot explain what is the reason of Creation not but for Glory of God. In any case God creates “Homer Hayiulì” before this Creation as part of all things, that is theHyle:
Why does the story of creation begin with bet?... In the same manner that the letter bet is closed on all sides and only open in front, similarly you are not permitted to inquire into what is before or what was behind, but only from the actual time of Creation.
Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Hagigah, 77c
Extensive instructions about the proper methods of forming the letters are found in Mishnat Soferim, withinMishna Berura ofYisrael Meir Kagan.
Inset theory,, pronounced aleph-naught, aleph-zero, or aleph-null, is used to mark thecardinal number of an infinitecountable set, such as, the set of all integers. More generally, thealeph number notation marks the ordered sequence of all distinct infinite cardinal numbers.
Standard Hebrew keyboards have a 101-key layout. Like the standardQWERTY layout, the Hebrew layout was derived from the order of letters on Hebrewtypewriters.
a^"Alef-bet" is commonly written in Israeli Hebrew without themaqaf (מקף, "[Hebrew] hyphen"),אלפבית עברי, as opposed to with the hyphen,אלף־בית עברי.
b^The letters of theArabic andMandaic alphabets generally have four forms each, according to their position within the word (initial, medial, final, or isolate). (There are exceptions in both alphabets: in the Arabic, six of the 28 letters have only two forms each; in the Mandaic, three of the 22 have only a single form.)
c^In forms of Hebrew older than Modern Hebrew,בי״ת,כ״ף, andפ״א can only be readb,k andp, respectively, at the beginning of a word, while they will have the sole value ofv,kh andf in asofit (final) position; there are few exceptions.[29] (In medial positions, both pronunciations are possible.)
In Modern Hebrew the restriction is much less absolute, e.g.פִיזִיקַאי/fiziˈkaj/ and never/piziˈkaj/ (= "physicist"),סְנוֹבּ/snob/ and never/snov/ (= "snob"). Adagesh may be inserted to unambiguously denote theplosive (b/k/p) variant:בּ =/b/,כּ =/k/,פּ =/p/; similarly (though today very rare in Hebrew, common only inYiddish) arafé placed above the letter unambiguously denotes thefricative (v/kh/f) variant:בֿ =/v/,כֿ =/χ/ andפֿ =/f/.
d^A pair of separate vavs,וו, sometimes occurs inKtiv male: this is different from theYiddish ligatureװ.
e1^ e2^ e3^ e4^ e5^The Academy of the Hebrew Language states that both[v] and[w] should be indistinguishably represented in Hebrew using the letter vav.[35] Where this guideline is followed Hebrew readers must rely on context and former knowledge to pronounce foreign words andloanwords containing the[w] sound.
Where the vav is doubled this is not to denote[w]. A double vav is used inktiv male to denote thephoneme /v/ at a medial position in a word (where a single vav would denote one of the phonemes /u/ or /o/).
^"Hebrew alphabet."Encyclopedia Britannica. "Square Hebrew became established in the 2nd and 1st centuries bce and developed into the modern Hebrew alphabet over the next 1,500 years."
^Abu Elhija, Dua'a (23 January 2014). "A new writing system? Developing orthographies for writing Arabic dialects in electronic media".Writing Systems Research.6 (2). Informa UK Limited:190–214.doi:10.1080/17586801.2013.868334.ISSN1758-6801.S2CID219568845.
^Gaash, Amir. "Colloquial Arabic written in Hebrew characters on Israeli websites by Druzes (and other non-Jews)." Jerusalem studies in Arabic and Islam 43 (2016): 15.
^Shachmon, Ori, and Merav Mack. "Speaking Arabic, Writing Hebrew. Linguistic Transitions in Christian Arab Communities in Israel". Wiener Zeitschrift Für Die Kunde Des Morgenlandes, vol. 106, 2016, pp. 223–239. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26449346. Accessed 15 July 2021.
^Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 21b–22a); Jerusalem Talmud (Megillah 10a). Cf.Mishnah (Megillah 1:8): "The Books [of Scripture] differ from phylacteries andMezuzahs only in that the Books may be written in any language, while phylacteries andMezuzahs may be writtenin the Assyrian writing only." See:The Mishnah (ed. Herbert Danby), Oxford University Press: London 1977, p. 202.
^Naveh, Joseph (1987), "Proto-Canaanite, Archaic Greek, and the Script of the Aramaic Text on the Tell Fakhariyah Statue", in Miller; et al. (eds.),Ancient Israelite Religion.
^Pardee, Dennis. "A Brief Case for the Language of the 'Gezer Calendar' as Phoenician".Linguistic Studies in Phoenician, ed. Robert D. Holmstedt and Aaron Schade. Winona Lake: 43.
^Tappy, Ron E., et al. "An Abecedary of the Mid-Tenth Century B.C.E. from the Judaean Shephelah."Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 344, 2006, pp. 5–46. JSTOR,http://www.jstor.org/stable/25066976. Accessed 17 May 2024.
^A. Dotan. “The Alphabet Inscription of 'Izbet Ṣarṭah / כתובת הא"ב מעזבת צרטה.”Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies / ארץ-ישראל: מחקרים בידיעת הארץ ועתיקותיה, vol. 16 (טז), 1982, pp. 62–69. JSTOR,http://www.jstor.org/stable/23619530. Accessed 17 May 2024.
^Renz, Johannes; Röllig, Wolfgang (2016).Handbuch der althebräischen Epigraphik (in German). Darmstadt: WBG (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft). p. 62.ISBN978-3-534-26789-7.
^Rendsburg, Gary A. (1997)."Ancient Hebrew Phonology"(PDF). In Kaye, Alan S. (ed.).Phonologies of Asia and Africa. pp. 70, 73.
^abcd"ךּ" is rare but exists, e.g. last word inDeuteronomy 7 1 (דברים פרק ז׳ פסוק א׳) in the word "מִמֶּךָּ" – seeתנ״ך מנוקד, דברים פרק ז׳. There is a single occurrence of "ףּ", see this comment[D].
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