TheTerritory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands[3][4] (HIMI[5]) is an Australianexternal territory comprising avolcanic group of mostly barren Antarctic islands, about two-thirds of the way fromMadagascar to Antarctica. The group's overall land area is 372 km2 (144 sq mi) and it has 101.9 km (63 mi) of coastline. Discovered in the mid-19th century, the islands lie on theKerguelen Plateau in the southern Indian Ocean and have been an Australian territory since 1947.[6][7]
Heard Island and McDonald Islands contain Australia's only two active volcanoes. The summit of one,Mawson Peak, is higher than any mountain in all other Australian states, territories orclaimed territories, exceptDome Argus,Mount McClintock andMount Menzies in theAustralian Antarctic Territory. This Antarctic territory is a land claim unrecognised by most other countries,[8] meaning that Mawson Peak is the highest mountain with undisputed Australiansovereignty.
An early sighting of Heard Island is attributed to Peter Kemp of the British sealingsnowMagnet on 27 November 1833.[13] However, the evidence that Heard Island was the land sighted by Kemp is limited.[14]Kemp Land in Antarctica was later named in his honour.[15]
An American sailor, John Heard, on the shipOriental, sighted Heard Island on 25 November 1853, en route fromBoston toMelbourne. He reported the discovery one month later and had the island named after him.[16] His wifeFidelia Heard provided the first written description and drawings of the island.[17][18] William McDonald aboardSamarangdiscovered the nearby McDonald Islands six weeks later, on 4 January 1854.[16]
No landing took place on the islands until March 1855, when American sealers fromCorinthian, led byErasmus Darwin Rogers, went ashore at a place calledOil Barrel Point. From 1855 to 1882 a number of other American sealers spent a year or more on the island, living in appalling conditions in dark smelly huts, also at Oil Barrel Point.[19] The island was also exploited by Australian sealers, includingJames William Robinson's 1858 expedition on behalf of Tasmanian merchantWilliam Crowther. Robinson's memoir of the expedition was deposited in theW. L. Crowther Library and provides one of the most detailed accounts of early conditions on the island.[20] At its peak the community consisted of 200 people. By 1877, sealers had wiped out most of the seal population and left the island. In all, the islands furnished more than 16 thousand cubic metres (4.3 million US gallons) ofelephant seal oil during this period.[19]
A number of wrecks have occurred in the vicinity of the islands. There is also an abandoned building left from John Heard's sealing station that is situated near Atlas Cove.[21] The shipwrecked crew ofTrinity spent 15 months on Heard Island from the wreck in October 1880 until their rescue in January 1882.[22]
In April 1910, the Australian-chartered steamerWakefield briefly visited Heard Island as part of an unsuccessful search forSS Waratah, which had disappeared in July 1909 en route from Australia to England.[23] In June 1910, a party from the whaling vesselMangoro annexed Heard Island on behalf of the United Kingdom. The annexation was protested by the French consul inDurban, South Africa, on the grounds that the island was French territory.[24]
The Kerguelen Whaling and Sealing Company, a South African enterprise, resumed sealing at Heard Island during the 1920s. Around this time theBritish Admiralty commissioned sealers to build a small wooden hut at Atlas Cove.[20]
Campbell's expedition landed at Atlas Cove on 17 December 1947, establishing a forward base for 14 scientists.[26] Following the successful landing of all stores and equipment, a flag-raising ceremony was held on 29 December 1947.[27] In response, theU.S. Department of State issued a statement on 4 January 1948 that it did not recognise an Australian claim to the island, as it considered it to be an Antarctic territory and did not recognise any claims from other sovereign states over the Antarctic.[28]
In February 1951, the Australian government announced that it had received confirmation from the British government that it had relinquished any prior claim over Heard Island and the McDonald Islands, backdated to 26 December 1947.[29]
Australians continuously occupied a station at Atlas Cove from 1947 to 1955. The first of these ventures arrived in December 1947 and stayed until February 1949.[30] Two members of the 1952 wintering party died in May while returning to their hut: radio operator Richard James Hoseason was swept out to sea, while dog trainer Alastair Graham Forbes was rescued from the sea but died while attempting to return to the base.[31][32] The camp at Atlas Cove was again occupied by American scientists in 1969 and expanded in 1971 by French scientists. Another station was established in 1971 at Williams Bay on McDonald Island in theMcDonald Islands.[33] Later expeditions used a temporary base atSpit Bay in the east, such as in 1988, 1992–1993, and 2004–2005.[citation needed]
There were at least five private expeditions to Heard Island between 1965 and 2000. Severalamateur radio operators have visited Heard, often associated with scientific expeditions. The first activity there was in 1947 by Alan Campbell-Drury. Two amateur radioDXpeditions to the island took place in 1983 using the callsigns VK0HI (theAnaconda expedition)[34] and VK0JS and VK0NL (theCheynes II expedition), with a further operation in January 1997 (VK0IR). The DXpedition in March 2016 (VK0EK) was organised by Cordell Expeditions,[35] and made over 75,000 radio contacts.[citation needed] The first recorded aircraft landing on McDonald Island was made by Australian scientists Grahame Budd and Hugh Thelander on 12 February 1971, using a helicopter.[36][37] The DX code for Heard Island is 111.[38]
Mawson Peak, atopBig Ben, was first climbed on 25 January 1965 by five members of the Southern Indian Ocean Expedition to Heard Island (sometimes referred to as thePatanela expedition).[39] The second ascent was made by five members of the Heard Island Expedition 1983 (sometimes referred to as theAnaconda expedition).[34] A helicopter landing was made at the summit by anAustralian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE) team on 21 December 1986. AnAustralian Army team was successful in making the third ascent in 2000.
In 1991, the islands were the location for theHeard Island feasibility test, an experiment in very long-distance transmission of low frequency sound through the ocean.[40] TheUnited States Navy-chartered motor vesselsMV Cory Chouest andAmy Chouest transmitted signals which were detected as far away as both ocean coasts of the United States and Canada.[41]
In 2025, the Australian icebreakerRSVNuyina conducted theAustralian Antarctic Program's first dedicated environmental management visit to Heard Island in more than 20 years.[42][43]
With the end ofsealing, the only exploited resource is fish; the Australian government allows limited fishing in the surrounding waters.[3]
There are no active military installations nor defence personnel on the islands. However, as part of Operation Resolute, theRoyal Australian Navy (RAN) andAustralian Border Force deployCape andArmidale-class patrol boats to carry out civil maritime security operations in both Australian mainland and offshore territories including the Heard and McDonald Islands.[45] In part to carry out this mission, as of 2023[update], the RAN'sArmidale-class boats are in the process of being replaced by largerArafura-class offshore patrol vessels.[46]
In April 2025, as part of asweeping campaign of tariffs against its trading partners, the US explicitly implemented a 10%tariff against the islands, despite the islands being uninhabited, earning the islands widespread media coverage.[48][49][50] The US claimed it had atrade deficit with the islands, an allegation that appeared to be calculated from incorrect trade data. An analysis of US import data and shipping records byThe Guardian indicated some shipments were incorrectly labelled as coming from the remote islands instead of their correct countries of origin. According to export data from theWorld Bank, the US importedUS$1.4million (A$2.23million) of products from Heard Island and McDonald Islands in 2022, nearly all of which was "machinery and electrical" imports.[51]
Heard Island and McDonald Islands in the Southern OceanA map of Heard Island and McDonald Islands
Heard Island, by far the largest of the group, is a 368-square-kilometre (142 sq mi) mountainous island covered by 41glaciers;[52] 80% of the island is covered with ice.[3] TheBig Benmassif dominates the island: It has a maximum elevation of 2,745 metres (9,006 ft) atMawson Peak, the historically active volcanic summit of Big Ben, to which the average ascent from shore is steeper than that for any island of comparable size or larger;only seven smaller islands are steeper. A July 2000 satellite image from theUniversity of Hawaiʻi's Institute ofGeophysics andPlanetology (HIGP) Thermal Alert Team showed an active 2-kilometre-long (1.2 mi) and 50–90-metre-wide (160–300 ft) lava flow trending southwest from the summit of Big Ben.[53]
The much smaller and rockyMcDonald Islands are located 44 kilometres (27 mi; 24 nmi) to the west of Heard Island. They consist of McDonald Island (186 m or 610 ft high), Flat Island (55 m or 180 ft high) andMeyer Rock (170 m or 560 ft high). They total approximately 2.5 square kilometres (0.97 sq mi) in area, where McDonald Island is 1.13 square kilometres (0.44 sq mi). There is a small group of islets and rocks about 10 km (6.2 mi; 5.4 nmi) north of Heard Island, consisting of Shag Islet,Sail Rock,Morgan Island,Drury Rock, and Black Rock. They total about 1.1 square kilometres (0.42 sq mi) in area.
Sentinel-2 wildfire visualization image showing thermal activity consistent with volcanic activity on Mawson peak, Heard Island
Mawson Peak and McDonald Island are the only two active volcanoes in Australian territory. Mawson Peak is also one of the highest Australian mountains (higher thanMount Kosciuszko). It is surpassed byDome Argus,Mount McClintock andMount Menzies in theAustralian Antarctic Territory,[54] aterritorial claim unrecognised by most other countries,[8] meaning that Mawson Peak is the highest mountain over which Australia has truesovereignty. Mawson Peak has erupted several times since 2013 and as recently as May 2023.[55] An earlier eruption was filmed on 2 February 2016.[56] Volcanic activity has been regularly observed on Heard Island ever since its discovery by Europeans in 1853[57] producing small lava flows almost annually between 2008 and 2020, so low-level volcanic activity (small vapour plumes, lava lake) is frequent or perhaps even continuous.[58] Low-level volcanic activity is punctuated by more vigorous episodes of activity that are detectable via satellite and include large vapour plumes and lava flows – satellite imagery suggests an ongoing eruption with lava effusion and mudflow as of 21 September 2025.[citation needed]
Heard Island and the McDonald Islands have no ports or harbours; ships must anchor offshore. The coastline is 101.9 km (63.3 mi) in extent, and Australia claims a 12 nmi (14 mi; 22 km)territorial sea and 200 nmi (230 mi; 370 km) exclusive fishing zone around the islands.[3]
Heard Island is a heavily glaciated,subantarcticvolcanic island located in theSouthern Ocean, roughly 4,000 km (2,500 mi; 2,200 nmi) southwest of Australia. Eighty percent of the island is covered in ice, with glaciers descending from 2,400 m (7,900 ft) tosea level.[59] Due to the steeptopography of Heard Island, most of its glaciers are relatively thin (averaging only about 55 m (180 ft) in depth).[60] The presence of glaciers on Heard Island provides an excellent opportunity to measure the rate of glacial retreat as an indicator of climate change.[61]
Available records show no apparent change inglacier mass balance between 1874 and 1929. Between 1949 and 1954, marked changes were observed to have occurred in the ice formations above 1,500 metres (5,000 ft) on the southwestern slopes of Big Ben, possibly as a result of volcanic activity. By 1963, major recession was obvious below 600 metres (2,000 ft) on almost all glaciers, and minor recession was evident as high as 1,500 metres (5,000 ft).[62]
The coastal ice cliffs ofBrown andStephenson Glaciers, which in 1954 were over 15 metres (50 ft) high, had disappeared by 1963 when the glaciers terminated as much as 90 metres (100 yd) inland.[62]Baudissin Glacier on the north coast, andVahsel Glacier on the west coast have lost at least 30 and 60 metres (100 and 200 ft) of ice vertically, respectively.[62] Winston Glacier, which retreated approximately 1.6 kilometres (1 mi) between 1947 and 1963, appears to be a very sensitive indicator of glacier change on the island. The youngmoraines flankingWinston Lagoon show that Winston Glacier has lost at least 90 metres (300 ft) of ice vertically within a recent time period.[62]Jacka Glacier on the east coast ofLaurens Peninsula has also demonstrated marked recession since 1955.[62]
Retreat of glacier fronts across Heard Island is evident when comparingaerial photographs taken in December 1947 with those taken on a return visit in early 1980.[59][63] Retreat of Heard Island glaciers is most dramatic on the eastern section of the island, where thetermini of formertidewater glaciers are now located inland.[59] Glaciers on the northern and western coasts have narrowed significantly, while the area of glaciers andice caps on Laurens Peninsula have shrunk by 30 to 65%.[59][60]
Between 1947 and 1988, the total area of Heard Island's glaciers decreased by 11%, from 288 square kilometres (111 sq mi) (roughly 79% of the total area of Heard Island) to only 257 square kilometres (99 sq mi).[60] A visit to the island in the spring of 2000 found that the Stephenson, Brown and Baudissin glaciers, among others, had retreated even further.[60][63] The terminus of Brown Glacier has retreated approximately 1.1 kilometres (0.68 mi) since 1950.[61] The total ice-covered area of Brown Glacier is estimated to have decreased by roughly 29% between 1947 and 2004.[63] This degree of loss of glacier mass is consistent with the measured increase in temperature of 0.9 °C (1.6 °F) over that time span.[63]
Possible causes of glacier recession on Heard Island include:
Volcanic activity
Southward movement of theAntarctic Convergence: such a movement might cause glacier retreat through a rise in sea and air temperatures
Climatic change
TheAustralian Antarctic Division conducted an expedition to Heard Island during theaustral summer of 2003–2004. A small team of scientists spent two months on the island, conducting studies onavian and terrestrial biology andglaciology. Glaciologists conducted further research on the Brown Glacier in an effort to determine whether glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated. Using a portableecho sounder, the team took measurements of the volume of the glacier. Monitoring of climatic conditions continued, with an emphasis on the impact ofFoehn winds on glacier mass balance.[64] Based on the findings of that expedition, the rate of loss of glacier ice on Heard Island appears to be accelerating. Between 2000 and 2003, repeatGPSsurface surveys revealed that the rate of loss of ice in both theablation zone and theaccumulation zone of Brown Glacier was more than double the average rate measured from 1947 to 2003. The increase in the rate of ice loss suggests that the glaciers of Heard Island are reacting to ongoing climate change, rather than approachingdynamic equilibrium.[63] The retreat of Heard Island's glaciers is expected to continue for the foreseeable future.[59]
Heard Island has a number of smallwetland sites scattered around its coastal perimeter, including areas ofwetland vegetation, lagoons or lagoon complexes, rocky shores and sandy shores, including theElephant Spit. Many of these wetland areas are separated by active glaciers. There are also several short glacier-fed streams and glacial pools. Some wetland areas have been recorded on McDonald Island but, due to substantial volcanic activity since the last landing was made in 1980, their present extent is unknown.
Six wetland types have been identified from HIMI covering approximately 1,860hectares (4,596acres): coastal 'pool complex' (237 hectares (590 acres)); inland 'pool complex' (105 hectares (260 acres)); vegetated seeps mostly on recent glaciated areas (18 hectares (44 acres)); glacial lagoons (1103 ha); non-glacial lagoons (97 hectares (240 acres)); Elephant Spit (300 hectares (741 acres)) plus some coastal areas. On Heard Island, the majority of these types suites are found below 150 metres (492 ft)asl. The wetland vegetation occurs in the 'wet mixed herbfield' and 'coastal biotic vegetation' communities described above.
The wetlands provide important breeding and feeding habitat for a number of Antarctic andsubantarctic wetland animals. These include thesouthern elephant seal andmacaroni,gentoo,king andeastern rockhopper penguins, considered to be wetlandspecies under the Ramsar Convention. Non-wetland vegetated parts of the islands also support penguin and other seabird colonies.
The islands have an Antarctic climate, ortundra climate (ET) under theKöppen climate classification, tempered by their maritime setting. The weather is marked by low seasonal and daily temperature ranges; persistent and generally low-lying cloud cover; frequent precipitation and strong winds. Snowfall occurs throughout the year. Monthly average temperatures atAtlas Cove (at the northwestern end of Heard Island) range from 0.0 to 4.2 °C (32.0 to 39.6 °F), with an average daily range of 3.7 to 5.2 °C (38.7 to 41.4 °F) in summer and −0.8 to 0.3 °C (30.6 to 32.5 °F) in winter. The winds are predominantly westerly and persistently strong. At Atlas Cove, monthly average wind speeds range between around 26 and 33.5 km/h (16.2 and 20.8 mph). Gusts in excess of 180 km/h (112 mph) have been recorded.
Annual precipitation at sea level on Heard Island is in the order of 1,300 to 1,900 mm (51.2 to 74.8 in); rain or snow falls on about three out of four days.[65] According to the AustralianBureau of Meteorology, Heard Island receives an average of 96.8 snowy days annually at Atlas Cove.[66]
Meteorological records at Heard Island are incomplete.
Climate data for Heard Island (1981–2010); 12 m AMSL; 53.10° S, 73.71° E
Most of the flora species are mosses andlichens, with just twelvevascular plant species. The main indigenous animals are insects, along with large populations of ocean-going seabirds, penguins and seals.[69]
This 1929 photo of a scientific expedition shows some of Heard Island's mosses in the background.
There is vegetation, mostly mosses and lichens, on almost 20 square kilometres (7.7 sq mi) of Heard Island's coastal, low-elevation areas.[70] There is not much plant diversity and there are very fewflowering plant species and no trees orferns.[70] There are twelve vascular species on Heard Island, of which five are also on McDonald Island. The limited flora is due to the severe climate and limited ice-free areas.[70]
Bryophytes, such as mosses and liverworts, can grow in places of the islands that other plants do not thrive in, such as on rock faces.Lichens grow in many places on Heard Island with exposed rocks.[70] Ninety species of lichens have been recorded from Heard Island and they are common on exposed rock, dominating the vegetation in some areas.[71]
Heard Island does not have human-introduced plants, but the island does have one non-native plant:Poa annua, a European grass. It may have come naturally from theKerguelen Islands, where it is widely present. ThePoa annua grass may have been spread to the island by winds and by animals such as seabirds and seals.[70]
Processingelephant seals on Heard Island – a 19th-century scene.
Sealing at Heard Island lasted from 1855 to 1910, during which time 67 sealing vessels are recorded visiting, nine of which were wrecked off the coast.[72] Relics that survive from that time includetry pots,casks, hut ruins, graves, and inscriptions. Sealing caused the seal populations on Heard Island to either become locally extinct or reduced to levels too low to exploit economically. Modern sealers visited fromCape Town, South Africa, in the 1920s.[72] Since then the seal populations generally have increased and are protected. Seals breeding on Heard include thesouthern elephant seal, theAntarctic fur seal, and thesubantarctic fur seal.Leopard seals visit regularly in winter tohaul-out though they do not breed on the islands.Crabeater,Ross andWeddell seals are occasional visitors.[73]
Heard Island and the McDonald Islands are free from introduced predators and provide crucial breeding habitat in the middle of the vast Southern Ocean for a range of birds. The surrounding waters are important feeding areas for birds and some scavenging species also derive sustenance from their cohabitants on the islands. The islands have been identified byBirdLife International as anImportant Bird Area because they support very large numbers of nesting seabirds.[74]
Nineteen species of birds have been recorded as breeding on Heard Island[75] and the McDonald Islands, although recent volcanic activity at the McDonald Islands in the last decade[when?] is likely to have reduced vegetated and un-vegetated nesting areas.[76]
Penguins are by far the most abundant birds on the islands, with four breeding species present, comprisingking,gentoo,macaroni, andeastern rockhopper penguins. The penguins mostly colonise the coastaltussock andgrasslands of Heard Island, and have previously been recorded as occupying the flats and gullies on McDonald Island.
A further 28 seabird species are recorded as either non-breeding visitors or have been noted during 'at-sea surveys' of the islands. All recorded breeding species, other than the Heard Island sheathbill, are listed marine species under the Australian Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Act (1999, four are listed as threatened species and five are listed as migratory species. Under the EPBC Act a recovery plan has been made for albatrosses and giant petrels, which calls for ongoing population monitoring of the species found at HIMI, and at the time of preparing this plan a draft recovery plan has also been made for theHeard Island cormorant (or shag) and Antarctic tern.
The recorded populations of some seabird species found in the Reserve have shown marked change. The king penguin population is the best-studied seabird species on Heard Island and has shown a dramatic increase since first recorded in 1947–1948, with the population doubling every five years or so for more than 50 years.[when?]
A paper reviewing population data for the black-browed albatross between 1947 and 2000–2001 suggested that the breeding population had increased to about three times that present in the late 1940s,[77] although a Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources CCAMLR) Working Group was cautious about the interpretation of the increasing trend given the disparate nature of the data,[78] as discussed in the paper. The discovery of a large, previously unknown, colony of Heard shags in 2000–2001 at Cape Pillar raised the known breeding population from 200 pairs to over 1000 pairs.[76] The breeding population of southern giant petrels decreased by more than 50% between the early 1950s and the late 1980s.
Heard Island supports a relatively low number of terrestrialinvertebrate species compared to other Southern Ocean islands, in parallel with the low species richness in the flora–that is, the island's isolation and limited ice-free area.Endemism is also generally low and the invertebrate fauna is exceptionally pristine with few, if any, (successful) human-induced introductions of alien species. Two species, including thethripsApterothrips apteris and themiteTyrophagus putrescentiae are thought to be recent, possibly natural, introductions. An exotic species of earthworm,Dendrodrilus rubidus, was also collected in 1929 from a dump near Atlas Cove, and has recently been collected from a variety ofhabitats including wallows, streams and lakes on Heard Island.
Thearthropods of Heard Island are comparatively well known, with 54 species of mite and tick, one spider, and eightspringtails recorded. A study over the summer of 1987–1988 at Atlas Cove showed overall densities of up to 60,000 individual springtails per square metre (10.75 sq ft) in soil under stands ofPringlea antiscorbutica. Despite a few recent[when?] surveys, the non-arthropod invertebrate fauna of Heard Island remain poorly known.
Beetles and flies dominate Heard Island's known insect fauna, which comprises up to 21 species ofectoparasite (associated with birds and seals) and up to 13 free-living species. Approximately half of the free-living insects are habitat-specific, while the remainder are generalists found in a variety of habitats, being associated with eithersupralittoral orintertidal zones,Poa cookii andPringlea antiscorbutica stands, bryophytes, lichen-covered rocks, exposed rock faces, or the underside of rocks. There is a pronounced seasonality to the insect fauna, with densities in winter months dropping to a small percentage (around 0.75%) of the summer maximum. Distinct differences in relative abundances of species between habitats has also been shown, including a negative relationship between altitude and body size for Heard Islandweevils (genusEctemnorhinus).
The fauna of the freshwater pools, lakes, streams and mires found in the coastal areas of Heard Island are broadly similar to those on other subantarctic islands of the southern Indian Ocean. Many species reported from Heard Island are found elsewhere. Some sampling of freshwater fauna has been undertaken during recent expeditions and records to date[when?] indicate that the freshwater fauna includes a species ofProtista, agastrotrich, two species oftardigrade, at least four species ofnematode, 26 species ofrotifer, six species ofannelid, and 14 species of arthropod.
As with the other shore biota, the marine macro-invertebrate fauna of Heard Island is similar in composition and local distribution to other subantarctic islands, although relatively little is known about the Heard Island communities compared with the well-studied fauna of some other islands in the subantarctic region, such asMacquarie and Kerguelen.
Despite Heard Island's isolation, species richness is considered to be moderate, rather than depauperate, although the number of endemic species reported is low. The large macro-algaDurvillaea antarctica supports a diverse array of invertebratetaxa and may play an important role in transporting some of this fauna to Heard Island.
^Øvstedal, D.O.; Gremmen, N.J.M. (2008). "Additions and corrections to the lichens of Heard Island".The Lichenologist.40 (3):233–242.doi:10.1017/S002428290800741X.
^"Seals".Heard Island and McDonald Islands: Seals. Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities, Australia. Retrieved23 February 2011.
^Woehler, E.J. & Croxall, J.P. 1991. 'Status and conservation of the seabirds of Heard Island and the McDonald Islands', in Seabird – status and conservation: a supplement, ICBP Technical Publication 11. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge. pp 263–277.
^abcWoehler, E.J. (2006). 'Status and trends of the seabirds of Heard Island, 2000', in Heard Island: Southern Ocean Sentinel. ed. Green, K. & Woehler, E. Surrey Beattie.
^Woehler, E. J.; Auman, H. J.; Riddle, M. J. (2002). "Long-term population increase of black-browed albatrossesThalassarche melanophrys at Heard Island, 1947/1948–2000/2001".Polar Biology.25 (12):921–927.Bibcode:2002PoBio..25..921W.doi:10.1007/s00300-002-0436-1.S2CID2425658.
^SC–CAMLR 2002. Report of the Working Group on Fish Stock Assessment. Report of the Twenty-First Meeting of the Scientific Committee for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, Hobart, Australia.
Australian Government. (2005)Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve Management Plan. Australian Antarctic Division: Kingston (Tas).ISBN1-876934-08-5.
Green, Ken and Woehler Eric (eds). (2006)Heard Island: Southern Ocean Sentinel. Chipping Norton: Surrey Beatty and Sons.ISBN9780949324986.
Scholes, Arthur. (1949)Fourteen men; story of the Australian Antarctic Expedition to Heard Island. Melbourne: F.W. Cheshire.
Smith, Jeremy. (1986)Specks in the Southern Ocean. Armidale: University of New England Press.ISBN0-85834-615-X.
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