Persian-speaking ethnic group mainly in Afghanistan
This article is about the ethnic group of Afghanistan; it is not to be confused with the Hindko-speakingHazarawal people of theHazara region in Pakistan, or with the historicKhazar.
HistorianAbdul Hai Habibi suggests that the word "Hazara" (Hazāraهزاره) is of ancient origin, derived from the term "Hazala" (həzāləهزاله), which gradually evolved into "Hazara" over time, and originally meant "good-hearted."[73][74]
The name "Hazara" (Hazāraهزاره) is thought to derive from the Persian word "Hazar" (Hazārهزار), meaning "thousand." It may be a translation of theMongolic wordmingghan, which referred to a military unit of thousand soldiers during the time ofGenghis Khan.[75][76][77] The term might have been used as a substitute for the Mongolic word to represent the group of people.[16] Sayed Askar Mousavi, however, questions the theory that these military units were permanently settled by direct order of Genghis Khan or his commanders in what is now Hazarajat. He argues that no known primary sources support such a claim, and views this interpretation as lacking historical foundation.[70] Nevertheless, a number of other historians maintain that Mongol military garrisons were indeed left behind in the region following the 13th-century invasions, and that these settlements played a significant role in the ethnogenesis of the Hazara people.[78][38] According toRashid al-Din, the Mongols established permanent military units acrossCentral Asia, including inKhorasan. He specifically mentions a commander named Tumay, who was stationed as a military governor (amir) in Khorasan, indicating long-term garrison activity in the area.[79]
In theirnative language, the Hazaras refer to themselves as "Azra" (āzrəآزره) or (əzrəازره).[80]
Despite being one of the principal population groups in Afghanistan,[81] the origins of the Hazara people have not been fully reconstructed. Genetic and linguistic analyses describe Hazaras as an ethnicallymixed group,[82] with varying degrees of ancestry linked to contemporaryTurkic,Mongolic, andIranic populations.[e] The physical characteristics of some Hazaras andChar Aimaks are Mongolian, likely a legacy of theMongol invasion.[71] Additionally, the Hazaras share common racial traits, physical features, and a strong resemblance to the Turkic populations ofCentral Asia.[87][84][37]Babur, the founder of theMughal Empire in the early 16th century, mentioned the Hazaras in theBaburnama, referring to some as "Turkoman Hazaras."[72]
Over the centuries, variousMongol (Turco-Mongol) andTurkic groups, notably theQara'unas,Chagatai Turco-Mongols,Ilkhanate, andTimurids, merged with localindigenous Turkic and Iranic populations. Scholars agree that the Hazaras are the result of this historical blending, representing a unique ethnogenesis shaped by Turkic, Mongolic, and Iranic influences.[88]
Although the Hazaras are a mix of multiple distinct ethnicities, a number of researchers focus on their Mongolic component. Some authors, including Elizabeth Emaline Bacon,[39][89] Barbara A. West,[90] Yuri Averyanov,[91] and Elbrus Sattsayev,[92] refer to them as "Hazara Mongols". Scholars such asVasily Bartold,[93]Ármin Vámbéry,[94] Vadim Masson, Vadim Romodin,[95]Ilya Petrushevsky,[96] Allah Rakha, Fatima, Min-Sheng Peng, Atif Adan, Rui Bi, Memona Yasmin, and Yong-Gang Yao have written about the historical use of the Mongolian language by the Hazaras.[97] According to Sayed Askar Mousavi, the term "Moghol Hazaras" has not been found in historical documents, and no scholars have encountered "Mogholi-speaking Hazaras".[98] However, 19th-century Hungarian orientalist Ármin Vámbéry, who personally traveled through Afghanistan, reported that some Hazara groups in the region of Herat still spoke a Mongolic dialect in his time. He also noted that the Hazaras preserved distinct Mongolian physical traits and cultural features.[94] Similarly, the Mughal emperor Babur, in his memoirs (Baburnama), mentioned that some Hazara communities spoke Mongolian. These historical observations are frequently cited by scholars who support a Mongol origin of the Hazaras.[99]
According to historian Lutfi Temirkhanov, Mongolian detachments left in Afghanistan byGenghis Khan or his successors became the foundational layer of Hazara ethnogenesis.[38] Sayed Askar Mousavi, however, questions the theory that these military units were permanently settled by direct order of Genghis Khan or his commanders in what is now Hazarajat. He argues that no known primary sources support such a claim, and views this interpretation as lacking historical foundation.[70] Nevertheless, a number of other historians maintain that Mongol military garrisons were indeed left behind in the region following the 13th-century invasions, and that these settlements played a significant role in the ethnogenesis of the Hazara people.[78][38] According toRashid al-Din, the Mongols established permanent military units acrossCentral Asia, including inKhorasan. He specifically mentions a commander named Tumay, who was stationed as a military governor (amir) in Khorasan, indicating long-term garrison activity in the area.[79]
In theGhilji neighborhood, Hazaras are called Mongols.[100] In turn, the Qarluq, Khalaj, and Turkoman peoples also contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Hazaras, with tribal names such as Qarluq and Turkoman still present among them today.[101][102] Evidence for the Mongol influence in Hazara ethnogenesis includes linguistic data, historical sources,toponymy,[103] and population genetics studies.[104] However, alternative theories have also been proposed, highlighting the complex origins of the Hazara people.[98][84]
Some historians argue that theBamiyanBuddha statues constructed around the 5th and 6th centuries and noted for their resemblance to the Hazaras in facial features and appearance, suggest the deep historical roots of the Hazara people in the central regions of present-day Afghanistan.[105][106][107]
Without taking a definitive stance, some scholars consider it historically plausible that the origins of the Hazara people are rooted in Mongolic and Turkic groups who gradually entered the mountainous regions between Persia, Central Asia, and India from the 13th to 15th centuries, intermixing with local populations and adopting their language. Additionally, earlier Turko-Mongolic groups such as the Hephthalites, who inhabited the region in the 5th and 6th centuries, may have also contributed to Hazara ethnogenesis.[99]
History
A Hazara horseman engages in battle againstBabur's troops along the Herat-Kabul Road in February 1507
It is reported that the Hazaras embracedShia Islam between the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, during the Safavid period.[108][109] In the 18th century, Hazara men, together with individuals from other ethnic groups, were enlisted into the army ofAhmad Shah Durrani.[110]
During the second reign ofDost Mohammad Khan in the 19th century, Hazaras from Hazarajat were taxed for the first time. However, for the most part, they managed to maintain their regionalautonomy until the 1892Battle of Uruzgan[111] and the subsequent subjugation byAbdur Rahman, which began in the late 19th century.[112]
When theTreaty of Gandomak was signed and theSecond Anglo-Afghan War ended in 1880, Abdur Rahman set a goal to bringHazaristan,Turkistan, andKafiristan under his control. He launched several campaigns in Hazaristan in response to resistance from the Hazaras, during which his forces committed atrocities. The southern part of Hazaristan was spared, as its inhabitants accepted his rule, while other regions rejected Abdur Rahman and supported his uncle,Sher Ali Khan. In response, Abdur Rahman waged war against the tribal leaders who opposed his policies and rule. This conflict is known as theHazara Uprisings.[108]
These campaigns had a catastrophic impact on the demographics of the Hazaras, resulting in themassacre of over sixty percent of the total Hazara population, with many being displaced and exiled from their own lands. The Hazara lands were distributed among loyalist villagers from nearby non-Hazara communities. The repression following the uprising has been characterized asgenocide orethnic cleansing in the history of modern Afghanistan.[113][114][115]
After these massacres, Abdul Rahman forced many Hazara families from the Hazara areas ofUruzgan and other parts of Hazaristan to leave their hometowns and ancestral lands, prompting many Hazaras to flee to neighboring countries such as Central Asia,Iran,British India,Iraq, andSyria. Those Hazaras living in the northernHindu Kush migrated toTsarist Russia, primarily settling in the southern cities, while some moved to Iran. Over time, many Hazaras living in Tsarist Russian regions lost theirlanguage,culture, andethnic identity due to the similarities inracial background andphysical appearance of the local population, leading them to assimilate. The fleeing Hazaras settled in former Tsarist Russia regions, includingUzbekistan,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan,Kazakhstan, andDagestan. Meanwhile, the Hazaras from northwestern Afghanistan migrated to Iran, settling in neighborhoods in and aroundMashhad, where they later became known as Khawari or Barbari. Another group of Hazaras from the southeastern regions of Afghanistan moved to British India, where they reside inQuetta (present-dayPakistan) and parts of present-dayIndia. Additionally, some Hazaras settled in Syria and Iraq. Unlike those who migrated to Tsarist Russia, the Hazaras in Pakistan, India, Iran, Syria, and Iraq were unable to integrate fully due to differences in physical appearance, allowing them to retain their language, culture, and ethnic identity.[116]
In 1901,Habibullah Khan, Abdur Rahman's eldest son and successor, granted amnesty to the Hazaras and invited those exiled by his predecessor to return. However, few returned, settling instead inTurkistan andBalkh province, as they had lost their previous lands. The Hazaras continued to face social, economic, and politicaldiscrimination throughout most of the 20th century. In 1933,Muhammad Nadir Shah, theKing of Afghanistan, was assassinated byAbdul Khaliq Hazara, aschool student. TheAfghan government later captured and executed him, along with several of his family members.[117]
Mistrust of the central government among the Hazaras and local uprisings persisted. In particular, from 1945 to 1946, duringZahir Shah's rule, arevolt led byIbrahim Khan, known as "Ibrahim Gawsawar," erupted in response to new taxes that were imposed exclusively on the Hazaras. Meanwhile, theKuchis were not only exempted from these taxes but also received allowances from the Afghan government.[108] The angry rebels began capturing and killing government officials. In response, the central government sent a force to subdue the region and subsequently removed the taxes.[citation needed]
During theSoviet–Afghan War, the Hazarajat region did not experience as much heavy fighting as other parts of Afghanistan. Most of the Hazaramujahideen engaged in combat against the Soviets in regions on the periphery of Hazarajat. There was a division between theTanzeem Nasle Nau Hazara, a party based in Quetta comprising Hazara nationalists and secular intellectuals, and theIslamist parties in Hazarajat.[108] By 1979, the Hazara Islamist groups had already liberated Hazarajat from the centralSoviet-backed Afghan government and subsequently took full control of the region away from the secularists. By 1984, the Islamist dominance in Hazarajat was complete. As the Soviets withdrew in 1989, the Islamist groups recognized the need to broaden their political appeal and shifted their focus towardHazara nationalism.[108] This shift led to the establishment ofHizbe-Wahdat, an alliance of all Hazara resistance groups, except forHarakat-e Islami.
In 1992, with the fall ofKabul, Harakat-e Islami sided withBurhanuddin Rabbani's government, while Hizb-e Wahdat aligned with the opposition. Hizb-e Wahdat was eventually forced out of Kabul in 1995 when theTaliban captured the city and killed their leader,Abdul Ali Mazari. Following the Taliban's capture of Kabul in 1996, all Hazara groups united with theNorthern Alliance against this common enemy. However, despite fierce resistance, Hazarajat fell to the Taliban in 1998. The Taliban isolated Hazarajat from the rest of the world, even preventing theUnited Nations from delivering food to the provinces ofBamyan,Ghor,Maidan Wardak, andDaikundi.[119]
In 1997, a revolt broke out among the Hazaras in Mazar-e Sharif when they refused to be disarmed by the Taliban, resulting in the deaths of 600 Taliban fighters in the subsequent fighting.[120] In retaliation, the Taliban adopted the genocidal policies reminiscent ofAbdur Rahman Khan's era. In 1998, six thousand Hazaras were killed in the north, with the intent of carrying out ethnic cleansing against the Hazara population.[121] In March 2001, the two giantBuddhas of Bamiyan were destroyed, despite widespread international condemnation.[122]
TallerBuddha of Bamiyan, 55 metres (180 ft) before and after destruction
Smaller Buddha of Bamiyan, 38 metres (125 ft) before and after destruction
Qazi Muhammad Isa,Jinnah's close associate and a key figure of the All-India Muslim League in Balochistan, Pakistan
Hazaras have also played a significant role in the creation ofPakistan. One notable Hazara wasQazi Muhammad Isa of theSheikh Ali tribe, who was a close friend ofMuhammad Ali Jinnah; they met for the first time while studying in London. Qazi Muhammad Isa was the first person from his native province ofBalochistan to obtain a Bar-at-Law degree and played a key role in establishing theAll-India Muslim League in Balochistan.[123][124]
Although Afghanistan has historically been one of the poorest countries in the world, the Hazarajat region remained underdeveloped due to past government neglect. Since the ousting of the Taliban in late 2001, billions of dollars had been invested in Afghanistan for reconstruction, and several large-scale projects began in August 2012. For instance, more than 5,000 kilometers of road pavement have been completed across the country, with little done in central Afghanistan (Hazarajat). Conversely, theBand-e Amir inBamyan Province became the firstnational park in Afghanistan. A road from Kabul toBamyan was also constructed, along with new police stations, government institutions, hospitals, and schools inBamyan,Daikundi, and other provinces predominantly inhabited by Hazaras. Additionally, the firstski resort in Afghanistan was established in Bamyan Province.[130][131]Discrimination is evident in the treatment ofKuchis (Pashtun nomads who historically migrate from region to region depending on the season), who are allowed to use the pastures of Hazarajat during the summer months. It is believed that this practice began during the rule of Abdur Rahman Khan.[132] Living in mountainous Hazarajat, where arable farmland is scarce, the Hazara people rely on these pasture lands for their livelihood during the long and harsh winters. In 2007, some Kuchi nomads entered parts of Hazarajat to graze their livestock. When the local Hazaras resisted, a clash ensued, resulting in several deaths on both sides from gunfire. Such events continue to occur, even after the central government, including PresidentHamid Karzai, was compelled to intervene. In late July 2012, a Hazara police commander in Uruzgan Province reportedly rounded up and killed nine Pashtun civilians in retaliation for the deaths of two local Hazaras. The Afghan government is currently investigating this matter.[132]
President Hamid Karzai's efforts after thePeace Jirga to negotiate a deal with Taliban leaders caused deep unease among Afghanistan's minority communities, who had fought the Taliban the longest and suffered the most during their rule. Leaders of theTajik,Uzbek, and Hazara communities vowed to resist any return of the Taliban to power, recalling the large-scale massacres of Hazara civilians during the Taliban's previous rule.[133] The2021 Kabul school bombing targeted a girls' school inDashte Barchi, a predominantly Hazara area in westernKabul.[134] The Dashte Barchi district had frequently been attacked by theIslamic State – Khorasan Province.[135]
Following thefall of Kabul to the Taliban in 2021, which marked the end of the war in Afghanistan, concerns were raised about whether the Taliban would reimpose the persecution of Hazaras as they did in the 1990s. An academic atMelbourne'sLa Trobe University stated that "The Hazaras are very fearful that the Taliban will likely reinstate the policies of the 1990s," despite Taliban reassurances that they would not revert to their previous oppressive practices.[136][137] On 6 September 2022,Human Rights Watch reported that since the Taliban took over Afghanistan in August 2021, ISIS–K has claimed responsibility for 13 attacks against Hazaras and has been linked to at least three more, resulting in the deaths and injuries of at least 700 people. The Islamic State affiliate has repeatedly targeted Hazaras and other religious minorities at mosques, schools, and workplaces.[138]
Genetics
Hazara farmers inBehsud, Maidan Wardak, have developed sun-darkened skin from working tirelessly under the intense mountain sun at elevations ranging from 2,500 to 3,000 meters above sea level.
Hazaras commemorating the anniversary ofAbdul Ali Mazari's death in Kabul, 2021.
Genetically, the Hazaras have a mix ofWest Eurasian andEast Eurasian components. Genetic data shows that Hazaras in Afghanistan cluster closely with theUzbek population, while both groups are notably distinct from Afghanistan'sTajik andPashtun populations.[31][84] There is evidence of both paternal and maternal connections toTurkic,Mongolic, andIranic populations.[139]
The frequency of ancestral components among the Hazaras varies according to tribal affiliation. They show a high genetic affinity to present-dayTurkic populations ofCentral Asia andEast Asia, as well as toMongolic populations. In terms of their overall genetic makeup, approximately 49% of the average gene pool of the Hazaras is derived from East Asian sources, around 48% from European sources, and approximately 0.17%, 0.47%, and 2.30% from African, Oceanian, and Amerindian sources, respectively. Thegenetic makeup of the Hazaras is similar to that ofUzbek,Uyghur,Kazakh,Kyrgyz, andMongol populations.[84][37][140][141][142][143]
Genetic analyses using methods such as pairwise genetic distances, multidimensional scaling (MDS), principal component analysis (PCA), and phylogenetic reconstruction have shown that the Hazaras are genetically closer to Turkic-speaking populations – such as the Uyghur, Kazakh, and Kyrgyz of northwest China – than to Mongolians, East-Asian or Indo-Iranian populations.[84] Additional analyses, including f3, f4, f4-ratio, qpWave, and qpAdm, indicate that while Hazaras share substantial genetic components with East Asian populations, approximately 57.8% of their ancestry can be traced to Mongolian-related sources.[143][144] According Guanglin He, genetic studies further suggest that the Hazaras have undergone admixture with local and neighboring populations, resulting in their present-day East–West Eurasian mixed genetic profile, which developed after their divergence from Mongolian groups.[143]
Paternal haplogroups
The most common paternal DNA haplogroups among Hazaras from Afghanistan are the East Eurasian haplogroup C-M217 (33.33%) and the West Eurasian haplogroup R1a1a-M17 (6.67%), followed by the West Eurasian haplogroups J2-M172 and L-M20. Some Hazaras were also found to belong to the haplogroups E1b1b1-M35, L-M20, and H-M69, which they share withTajiks,Pashtuns, andIndian populations. Additionally, one individual with the haplogroup B-M60, typically found inEastern Africa, was identified.[145][146]
Haplogroup C2 (previously known as the C3-Star cluster) is the most frequent haplogroup among Pakistani and Afghan Hazaras.[144] Pakistani Hazaras have a high frequency ofhaplogroup C-M217 at approximately 40% (10/25) andhaplogroup R1b at around 32% (8/25). A relatively high frequency of R1b has also been found among Eastern RussianTatars andBashkirs, and all three groups are thought to be associated with theGolden Horde.[147] Haplogroup C-M217, or C2, is the most common haplogroup in Mongol and Kazakh populations.[144] According to Sabitov, studies indicate that Y-DNA haplogroup C2 among Hazaras is linked to the expansion of the Mongols,[141] and, as noted by Zhabagin, this genetic marker supports the Mongolian origin of the Hazaras.[142] According to Volkov, the Turkic genetic lineage is associated with haplogroup R1b, which is most likely linked to populations of the Dasht-i-Kipchak region who were recruited from the eastern wing of the Jochid Ulus for Hülegü's campaign into Iran.[148]
Maternal haplogroups
The Hazaras share approximately 35% of their maternal haplogroups with contemporary East Asian populations, while about 65% are shared with West Eurasian populations.[149] Overall, the Hazaras predominantly have West Eurasian mtDNA.[150][151][152]
Most unbiased sources estimate that Hazaras make up approximately 9% ofAfghanistan's total population.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][153][17][154][excessive citations] Some sources, however, claim the figure is as low as 3%,[12][14][2][15] while others suggest it could be as high as 20%.[16][17][15] The World Hazara Council even claims that around 8 to 10 million Hazaras reside in Afghanistan and the Hazara population worldwide (especially in Pakistan, Iran, and other countries, largely due to historical migration and displacement) could be as high as 14 million in 2024,[155] which would make up to a quarter of the total Afghan population and is not backed up by any unbiased source. During the Hazara uprisings between1888 and 1893, over 60 percent of their population was massacred and forcibly displaced. Consequently, they lost a substantial portion of their ancestral lands to non-Hazaras—territory that, if retained, could have nearly doubled their current land holdings.[113][156]
Afghanistan and the geographical region of Hazaristan in 1890
The Hazaras are among the largestethnic groups in Afghanistan, predominantly settled in the central regions known asHazaristan (Hazarajat), with a significant presence throughout the country.[157] Their population within Afghanistan is estimated to range from 8 to 10 million.[158]
Until the 1880s, the Hazaras maintained full autonomy and controlled all of Hazarajat. The central government in Kabul had not yet succeeded in bringing them under its rule.[159]
After the massacre and genocide of the Hazaras byAbdur Rahman from1888 to 1893, many Hazaras migrated toCentral Asian regions underTsarist Russian occupation, includingUzbekistan,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan, andKazakhstan, with a significant number settling inSamarkand andBukhara. Over time, many Hazaras living in these regions lost their accent, language, and ethnic identity due to the similarities in racial structure and appearance with the local populations, leading to their assimilation.[116][160]
During the period ofBritish colonial rule in theIndian subcontinent in the 19th century, Hazaras worked in coal mines, road construction, and otherworking-class jobs during the winter months in various cities of what is nowPakistan. The earliest record of Hazaras in Pakistan dates back to Broadfoot's Sappers Company, which was established in 1835 inQuetta and also participated in theFirst Anglo-Afghan War. Additionally, some Hazaras worked on agricultural farms inSindh and contributed to the construction of the Sukkur Barrage.[citation needed] In 1962, thegovernment of Pakistan officially recognized the Hazaras as one of thecountry's ethnic groups.[161]
Despite this, Hazaras are often targeted by militant groups such asLashkar-e-Jhangvi and others. Activists report that at least 800 to 1,000 Hazaras have been killed since 1999, and the pace is quickening. According toHuman Rights Watch, more than one hundred have been murdered in and around Quetta since January.[163] The political representation of the community is served by theHazara Democratic Party, a secular liberal democratic party headed byAbdul Khaliq Hazara.[164][165]
Muhammad Yusuf Khan Hazara, also known as "Sulat al-Sultanah Hazara", a prominent Hazara leader and the first Sunni representative to serve in the Iranian Parliament
The Hazara people inIran are also referred to asKhāwari (Persian:خاوری) orBarbari (بربری).[166][167] Over many years, due to political unrest in Afghanistan, some Hazaras have migrated to Iran.[22] Before Iran was forced to relinquish theHerat region according to theTreaty of Paris in 1857 during the reign ofNaser al-Din Shah, the country possessed a much larger part ofGreater Khorasan. One of the tribes that roamed this area prior to the cession was the Hazaras. After the border between Iran and Afghanistan was drawn, the tribe settled on both sides of the border. The leadership of this tribe at the end of theQajar period and during thePahlavi period was held byMuhammad Yusuf Khan Hazara, known as "Sulat al-Sultanah Hazara." He was aSunni Hazara, a politician, and the first Sunni representative in theIranian Parliament, as well as the only Sunni Iranian to represent Mashhad in the history of Iran'slegislatures.[168][169]
TheAttarwala claim descent from Hazaras who mainly inhabit the state ofGujarat,India. They are descended from a group ofMughal soldiers who were initially settled inAgra during the rule of Mughal EmperorJahangir.[170] According to their recorded documents, they then migrated toAhmedabad viaGwalior,Ratlam, andGodhra. This migration followed their participation in the community during the 1857Indian War of Independence. Once settled in Gujarat, the community took up the occupation of manufacturing perfumes known asittars.[170] The term "attarwala" means "manufacturer of perfumes." A second migration occurred in 1947 from Agra after thepartition of India, with some members immigrating toPakistan, while others joined their co-ethnics in Ahmedabad.[170]
Alessandro Monsutti argues in his recentanthropological book[171] thatmigration is a traditional way of life for the Hazara people, referring to the seasonal and historical migrations that have never ceased and do not seem to be dictated solely by emergencies such as war.[172] Due to decades of conflict in Afghanistan andsectarian violence in Pakistan, many Hazaras have left their communities and settled inAustralia,New Zealand,Canada, theUnited States, theUnited Kingdom, and particularly theNorthern European countries such asSweden andDenmark. Some migrate as exchange students, while others do so through human smuggling, which sometimes costs them their lives. Since 2001, about 1,000 people have died at sea while attempting to reach Australia by boat from Indonesia, many of whom were Hazaras.[163] A notable case was theTampa affair, in which a shipload of refugees, mostly Hazaras, was rescued by theNorwegian freighterMVTampa and subsequently sent toNauru.[173]
Hazara culture is a rich tapestry of customs, traditions, behaviors, beliefs, and norms that have evolved over centuries. This culture has developed through a series of interactions with and responses to surrounding peoples and environments, ultimately shaping a distinct cultural identity. Today, Hazara culture stands out for its unique heritage, incorporating elements from bothCentral Asia andSouth Asia while maintaining its own distinctiveness. Outside of Hazarajat, many Hazara communities have embraced aspects of the local cultures in which they reside, often blending elements ofAfghan Tajiks andPashtuns traditions. However, in Hazarajat, the heart of Hazara culture, many of the original customs and traditions remain intact. These are more closely aligned with those of Central Asia than with the Afghan Tajiks, preserving the distinct cultural legacy of the Hazara people. Traditionally, the Hazara people have been highland farmers, skillfully cultivating the mountainous regions of their homeland. While most Hazaras live in permanent homes, certain groups, such as theAimaq Hazara, continue to maintain asemi-nomadic lifestyle. These communities often live infeltyurts rather than traditional dwellings.[174][175][176][AI-generated?]
Before the Afghan rulerAbdur Rahman Khan conquered Hazarajat between 1888 and 1893—a period known as theHazara genocide—Hazara society was structured under a feudal system. The social hierarchy was dominated by influential landowners and powerful figures, such askhans,beigs,arbabs,mirs, ormaliks, who held authority over the land and society.[161] Below them, the clerics (mullahs) andsayyids held the second tier. The Hazara economy was largely centered on agriculture and livestock, which underpinned the region's prosperity.[160]
Hazara attire plays a significant role in upholding the cultural, traditional, and social identity of the group. These garments are primarily handcrafted, reflecting the community's rich heritage. In Afghanistan, Hazara clothing is sewn in various regions, with a particular focus on the central provinces.[177][178]
Hazara men traditionally wear abarak (also known as barag) alongside a hat, with the barak being a key element of Hazara clothing. This soft, thick garment is crafted from the first wool sheared from special sheep raised in the Hazarajat region, making it both luxurious and durable. Beyond its regal appearance, the Hazara barak serves a practical function as a warm winter garment. Its unique properties make it resistant to moisture, allowing it to stay dry even in snow and rain. Additionally, the fabric's softness is believed to reduce muscle pain and relieve joint discomfort. In contemporary times, however, theperahan o tunban has become the most common attire among Hazara men, often worn with a hat or turban.[179][178][177]
Female clothing
The traditional clothing of Hazara women includes a pleated skirt with atunban orundergarment. The lower tunbans are made from fabrics such as flowered chits, while the upper skirts are crafted from finer materials likevelvet,zari, ornet, often adorned with a border or decoration at the bottom. The women's shirt is calf-length, with a close collar and long sleeves, featuring slits on both sides that fit over the skirts, which are appreciated for their modesty in accordance with Islamic customs. Hazara women's clothing varies according to social, economic, and age factors. Young Hazara women typically wear outfits made from different fabrics in vibrant colors and cheerful designs, complemented by beautiful and colorfulchadors. In contrast, older women prefer darker fabrics with simple black-and-white patterns. Hazara women's chadors, or head coverings, are often embellished withornaments, typically silver or gold, and sometimes paired with a hat. The adornments on their clothing include silver or goldnecklace with colorfulbeads,buttons,bangles, and silver or goldbracelets.[177][178]
The Hazara people have a rich tradition of wearing distinct headgear, with styles varying for men and women. These hats and caps come in various forms, some made from animal skin and others crafted frombarak. Additionally, some Hazara men wear the traditionalGreater Khorasaniturban.[180][181]
The Hazara cuisine is deeply influenced byCentral Asian,South Asian, andPersian culinary traditions. Despite these influences, the Hazaras have developed a distinctive food culture, with unique dishes, cooking techniques, and flavors specific to their community. Hospitality plays a central role in their dining etiquette, and it is customary to prepare special meals when hosting guests.[citation needed]
According to theEncyclopaedia of Islam, Hazaragi is a dialect of Persian, infused with manyTurkic and someMongolic words.[184] TheEncyclopædia Britannica describes Hazaragi as an eastern variety of Persian containing numerous Mongolic and Turkic words.[185] Similarly,Encyclopaedia Iranica notes that Hazaras speak a Persian dialect with many Turkic and some Mongolic words.[186][6][187][188] Other sources describe the Hazara population as speaking Persian with some Mongolic words.[144][31] AnIranica article on the language of Hazaras states that the dialect consists of three linguistic layers: (1) pre-Mongol Persian, with its own substratum; (2) Mongolian; and (3) modern Tajiki, preserving elements of both (1) and (2).[183] The primary difference between Persian and Hazaragi lies in the accent.[183] Despite these variations, Hazaragi remains mutually intelligible with Dari,[182] theofficial language of Afghanistan.[189]
According to scholar Lutfi Temirkhanov, the ancestors of the Hazaras were originally Mongol-speaking.[38][103] However, following their resettlement, they began to intermingle with Persian- and Turkic-speaking populations. Temirkhanov explains, "Hordes of Mongol princes and feudal lords found themselves in a Persian-speaking environment; they mixed with them, were influenced by Persian-Tajik culture, and gradually adopted the Persian language."[190]Sayed Askar Mousavi, however, questioned the theory that these military units were permanently settled by direct order ofGenghis Khan or his commanders in what is now Hazarajat. He argues that no known primary sources support such a claim and that this interpretation lacks a historical foundation.[70] Nevertheless, a number of other historians maintain that Mongol military garrisons were indeed left behind in the region following the 13th-century invasions, and that these settlements played a significant role in the ethnogenesis of the Hazara people.[78][38] According toRashid al-Din Hamadani, the Mongols established permanent military units acrossCentral Asia, including inKhorasan. He specifically mentions a commander named Tumay, who was stationed as a military governor (amir) in Khorasan, indicating long-term garrison activity in the area.[79]
Some sources indicate that in the 16th century, during the time ofBabur, some Hazaras still spoke aMongolian language.[95][93][41] According to theGreat Russian Encyclopedia and other sources, some Hazaras continued to speak Mongolian until the 19th century.[40][94][96][97] Temirkhanov notes that Mongolic words make up about 10% of the Hazara vocabulary.[191] Approximately 20 percent of the Hazara vocabulary consists of Turkic and Mongolic words,[192][184] with the proportion of each varying by source; some studies report a predominance of Turkic terms,[192][184] while others highlight a stronger Mongolic influence.[144][183]
According to Sayed Askar Mousavi, the term "Moghol Hazaras" has not been found in historical documents, and no scholars have encountered "Mogholi-speaking Hazaras".[98] However, 19th-century Hungarian orientalistÁrmin Vámbéry, who personally traveled through Afghanistan, reported that some Hazara groups in the region of Herat still spoke a Mongolic dialect in his time. He also noted that the Hazaras preserved distinct Mongolian physical traits and cultural features.[94] Similarly, the Mughal emperorBabur, in his memoirs (Baburnama), mentioned that some Hazara communities spoke Mongolian. These historical observations are frequently cited by scholars who support a Mongol origin of the Hazaras.[99]
According to Efimov, examples of vocabulary in Hazaragi that reflect Turkic influence includeata ("father"),kaṭa ("big, large"),qara ("black"),[183]kunda ("plow"),qōš ("eyebrow"),[193] while words of Mongolic origin includebêri ("bride"),alaḡa ("palm of the hand"),qulaḡay ("thief"),[183]xatun ("wife, woman"),ōḡil ("village"), and others.[193]
There is no definitive theory regarding the acceptance ofShia Islam by the majority of Hazaras. It is possible that most Hazaras adopted Shi'a Islam in the early 16th century, during the initial years of theSafavid dynasty.[195][28][29]
Sunni Hazaras
Sher Muhammad Khan Hazara, the chieftain of the Sunni Hazaras fromQala-e-Naw, Badghis
Sher Muhammad Khan Hazara, a Sunni Hazara andchieftain of the Hazaras ofQala e Naw, was a warlord who participated in the Sunni coalition that defendedHerat in 1837. He was also one of those who defeated British forces aroundQandahar and in theMaiwand desert during theFirst Anglo-Afghan War (1838–1842).[198]
Many Hazara musicians are widely recognized for their skill in playing thedambura, a native lute instrument also found in other Central Asian countries such asKazakhstan,Uzbekistan, andTajikistan. Notable Hazara musicians and dambura players includeSarwar Sarkhosh,Dawood Sarkhosh,Safdar Tawakoli, andSayed Anwar Azad, among others.[174]Revolutionary hymns are particularly common in Hazara dambura music, with Sarwar Sarkhosh being the first singer to popularize them. His main message centered on the uprising of the younger generation and the fight against oppression.[202] Additionally, theghaychak, a traditional field instrument, is played similarly to a fiddle. Its resonance bowl is typically made from walnuts or berries, and its strings are metal, making it one of thestringed instruments in Hazara music.[203]
Another notable Hazara athlete, Sayed Abdul Jalil Waiz, was the firstbadminton player to represent Afghanistan in the Asian Junior Championships in 2005, where he secured the first win for his country against Iraq with scores of 15–13 and 15–1. He has participated in several international championships since 2005, achieving victories against competitors fromAustralia, thePhilippines, andMongolia.Hamid Rahimi is a Hazara boxer from Afghanistan living in Germany.Hussain Sadiqi is aHazara Australian martial artist who won an award for the bestfight scene in an Australian-made action movie.
Another notable figure isKulsoom Hazara, a celebrated Pakistani karate champion who has earned numerous gold, silver, and bronze medals at both national and international levels. She has also been honored with the prestigiousPride of Pakistan Award.[210] Other notable Hazara athletes in karate includeNargis Hameedullah, who made history as the first Pakistani woman to win a bronze medal at theAsian Games in karate,[211] andShahida Abbasi, a gold medalist and the first Pakistani woman to represent the country internationally inkata.[212]
Cultural sports
The cultural sports of the Hazara people are those that have been passed down through generations from their ancestors.
Buzkashi is a Central Asian sport in which horse-mounted players attempt to place agoat orcalf carcass into a goal. It is the national sport of Afghanistan and is one of the cultural sports of the Hazara people, who continue to practice this sport in Afghanistan.[213]
Pahlawani, or Kushti, is a traditionalwrestling sport practiced by the Hazaras. It has a long history in Afghanistan and is particularly significant among the Hazara community. During holidays, Pahlawani fields are set up for competitions, which are held across different age groups. This cultural sport features its own unique techniques. Due to its ancient roots and familiarity, Pahlawani has been passed down from generation to generation among the Hazaras.[215]
^abcdHe, Guanghin; et al. (2019). "A comprehensive exploration of the genetic legacy and forensic features of Afghanistan and Pakistan Mongolian-descent Hazara".Forensic Science International: Genetics.42:e1–e12.doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2019.06.018.PMID31257046.There are approximately 7˜8 million Hazara people residing in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran, European, Australia, Canada, and Indonesia. Hazara is the third-largest ethnic group in Afghanistan with a population size of over 2.84 million [7.5% of the population in 2019] and also a large minority group with over 0.65 million people [0.3% of the population in 2019] in Pakistan.
^ab"Afghan Ethnic Groups: A Brief Investigation". NATO CFC. 14 August 2011.Archived from the original on 18 September 2021. Retrieved18 September 2021 – via ReliefWeb.According to 2010 data from the US Department of State, the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan is the Pashtun (including Kuchis), comprising 42% of Afghans.1 The Tajiks are the second largest ethnic group, at 27% of the population, followed by the Hazaras (9%), Uzbeks (9%), Aimaq (4%), Turkmen (3%), Baluch (2%) and other groups that make up 4%.
^ab"Minorities in Afghanistan: The Hazara".European Commission. 25 February 2010. Retrieved5 May 2025.The fifth ÖIF-länderinfo (5th-country information) reveals the current situation about the Hazara minority in Afghanistan, which account for approximately 9 per cent of the total population.
^ab"Situation of the Hazaras".Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. 28 July 2011. Retrieved5 May 2025.At just nine percent, or approximately 2.7 million of Afghanistan's estimated population of 29,835,392 people (US 8 July 2011), the Hazaras are a minority ethnic group.
^ab"Afghanistan".Minority Rights Group International. 2 November 2023. Retrieved5 May 2025.[N]o reliable current data on ethnicity in Afghanistan exists, though surveys have pointed to some rough estimates of the population. However, previous estimates have put the population at Pashtun 42 per cent, Tajik 27 per cent, Hazara 9 per cent, Uzbek 9 per cent, Turkmen 3 per cent, Baluchi 2 per cent and other groups making up the remaining 8 per cent.
^abcd"Who are the Hazara people of Afghanistan?".Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved6 May 2025.While some accounts maintain that the Hazaras are one of Afghanistan's largest ethnic groups — albeit commanding about 20, not 67, percent of the population — others believe they constitute less than 9 percent.
^abcdKhazeni, Arash; Monsutti, Alessandro; Kieffer, Charles M. (15 December 2003)."HAZĀRA".Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved23 December 2007.
^Brasher, Ryan (2011). "Ethnic Brother or Artificial Namesake? The Construction of Tajik Identity in Afghanistan and Tajikistan".Berkeley Journal of Sociology.55:97–120.JSTOR23345249.
^Martínez-Cruz, Begoña; Vitalis, Renaud; Ségurel, Laure; Austerlitz, Frédéric; Georges, Myriam; Théry, Sylvain; Quintana-Murci, Lluis; Hegay, Tatyana; Aldashev, Almaz; Nasyrova, Firuza; Heyer, Evelyne (2011)."In the heartland of Eurasia: the multilocus genetic landscape of Central Asian populations".European Journal of Human Genetics.19 (2):216–223.doi:10.1038/ejhg.2010.153.ISSN1476-5438.PMC3025785.PMID20823912.Our study confirms the results of Li et al's study that cluster the Hazara population with Central Asian populations, rather than Mongolian populations, which is consistent with ethnological studies. Our results further extend these findings, as we show that the Hazaras are closer to Turkic-speaking populations from Central Asia than to East-Asian or Indo-Iranian populations.
^abcdChen, Pengyu; Adnan, Atif; Rakha, Allah; Wang, Mengge; Zou, Xing; Mo, Xiaodan; He, Guanglin (18 August 2019)."Population background exploration and genetic distribution analysis of Pakistan Hazara via 23 autosomal STRs".Annals of Human Biology.46 (6):514–518.doi:10.1080/03014460.2019.1673483.ISSN0301-4460.PMID31559868.S2CID203569169.Overall, we genotyped 25 forensic-related markers in 261 Quetta Hazara individuals and provided the first batch of 23-autosomal STRs for forensic genetics and population genetics research. 23-autosomal STRs included in Huaxia Platinum were polymorphic in the Hazara population and could be used as powerful tool for forensic investigations. Population genetic comparisons based on two datasets via PCA, MDS and phylogenetic relationship reconstruction consistently indicated that the Quetta Hazara in Pakistan shared significant genetic components with Central Asians, especially for Turkic-speaking populations.
^abcdMousavi, Sayed Askar (1998).The Hazaras of Afghanistan: An Historical, Cultural, Economic and Political Study. Curzon Press. p. 35.ISBN0-7007-0630-5.
^abcРашид-ад-дин.Сборник летописей. Т.I, кн.2. М., Л., 1952 Москва. p. 275-276. In Russian:"Тысяча Илак-Туа, который был старшим братом Элджигитая от кости тамгалык ветви племени сулдус; из их потомства в этом государстве — Тумай, который был в Хорасане эмиром-тысяцким."
^دلجو, عباس (2018).تاریخ باستانی هزارهها. کابل، افغانستان: موسسه انتشارات مقصوی، کابل. p. 199.ISBN978-9936-624-00-9.
^Monsutti, Alessandro (1 July 2017),"Hazāras",Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, Brill, retrieved7 May 2022,The Hazāras are a principal component of the population of Afghanistan.
^Bosworth, C. E. (24 April 2012),"Hazāras",Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Brill, retrieved8 May 2022,The Hazāras are almost certainly an Ethnically mixed group, whose components may or may not be related to each other.
^abcdefMartínez-Cruz, Begoña; Vitalis, Renaud; Ségurel, Laure; Austerlitz, Frédéric; Georges, Myriam; Théry, Sylvain; Quintana-Murci, Lluis; Hegay, Tatyana; Aldashev, Almaz; Nasyrova, Firuza; Heyer, Evelyne (2011)."In the heartland of Eurasia: the multilocus genetic landscape of Central Asian populations".European Journal of Human Genetics.19 (2):216–223.doi:10.1038/ejhg.2010.153.ISSN1476-5438.PMC3025785.PMID20823912.Our study confirms the results of Li et al's study that cluster the Hazara population with Central Asian populations, rather than Mongolian populations, which is consistent with ethnological studies. Our results further extend these findings, as we show that the Hazaras are closer to Turkic-speaking populations from Central Asia than to East-Asian or Indo-Iranian populations.
^دلجو, عباس (2018).تاریخ باستانی هزارهها. کابل، افغانستان: موسسه انتشارات مقصوی، کابل. p. 257.ISBN978-9936-624-00-9.
^B. Campbell, Disappearing people? Indigenous groups and ethnic minorities in South and Central Asia in Barbara Brower, Barbara Rose Johnston (Ed.) International Mountain Society, California, 2007
^abБартольд. В. В. (2022).Ислам. Культура мусульманства. Москва: Litres. p. 162. In Russian:"...еще в XVI веке говорили хазарейцы по-монгольски в северной части Афганистана..."
^abcdÁrmin Vámbéry (2003).Путешествие по Средней Азии. Москва: Восточная литература. In Russian:"Говорят, что хазарейцы ... были перевезены Чингисханом из Монголии, своей прародины, на юг Средней Азии и благодаря влиянию шаха Аббаса II обращены в шиизм. Поразительно, что они заменили свой родной язык персидским, который даже в населенных ими областях не повсеместно распространен, и лишь небольшая часть, оставшаяся изолированной в горах поблизости от Герата и уже несколько столетий занимающаяся выжиганием угля, говорит на некоем жаргоне монгольского языка."
^abМассон В. М., Ромодин В. А. (1964).История Афганистана. Том I. С древнейших времен до начала XVI века. Москва: Наука. pp. 289–290. In Russian:"Еще в XVI в., по сообщению Бабура, среди хазарейцев был распространен монгольский язык, а небольшая часть их, по-видимому, и в XIX в. говорила на языке, близком к монгольскому."
^abПетрушевский И. П. (1952).Рашид-ад-дин и его исторический труд. Москва/Ленинград: Издательство Академии Наук СССР. P. 29. In Russian:"Как известно, большой массив монгольского населения (хезарейцы), отчасти сохранявшего свой язык еще в XIX в., сложился на территории Афганистана..."
^abAllah Rakha, Fatima, Min-Sheng Peng, Atif Adan, Rui Bi, Memona Yasmin, Yong-Gang Yao (2017)."mtDNA sequence diversity of Hazara ethnic group from Pakistan". Forensic Science International: Genetics. Volume 30: Pages e1-e5. In English:"Moreover, there are also lines of evidence that some of the remote tribes of Hazaras spoke Mongol language till last century. Their central Asian facial features including sparse beards, high cheekbones and epicanthic eye folds further supports their Mongol origin."
^abcMousavi, Sayed Askar (1998).The Hazaras of Afghanistan: An Historical, Cultural, Economic and Political Study. Curzon Press. p. 36.ISBN0-7007-0630-5.
^Mousavi, Sayed Askar (1998).The Hazaras of Afghanistan: An Historical, Cultural, Economic and Political Study. Curzon Press. p. 31.ISBN0-7007-0630-5.
^Mousavi, Sayed Askar (1998).The Hazaras of Afghanistan: An Historical, Cultural, Economic and Political Study. Curzon Press. p. 140.ISBN0-7007-0630-5.
^abTemirkhanov L. (1968)."О некоторых спорных вопросах этнической истории хазарейского народа". Советская этнография. 1. P. 91. In Russian:"Об участии монголов в этногенезе хазарейцев свидетельствуют и данные лингвистики... также исторические источники (например, «Записки Бабура») и данные топонимики"
^Mousavi, Sayed Askar (1998).The Hazaras of Afghanistan: an historical, cultural, economic and political study. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon.ISBN978-1-315-02693-0.OCLC1100424512.
^abcdeAdnan, Atif; Rakha, Allah; Nazir, Shahid; Alghafri, Rashed; Hassan, Qudsia; Wang, Chuan-Chao; Lu, Jie (2021). "Forensic features and genetic legacy of the Baloch population of Pakistan and the Hazara population across Durand line revealed by Y-chromosomal STRs".International Journal of Legal Medicine.135 (5):1777–1784.bioRxiv10.1101/2020.11.21.392456.doi:10.1007/s00414-021-02591-2.ISSN0937-9827.PMID33818632.
^Khazeni, Arash; Monsutti, Alessandro; Kieffer, Charles M. (15 December 2003)."HAZĀRA".Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved23 December 2007.
^"AFGHANISTAN iv. Ethnography".L. Dupree (Online ed.). United States: Encyclopædia Iranica. 15 December 1983.The Hazāra number about 1,000,000 [which makes up 9% of the total Afghan population of approximetaly 11 million in 1983], primarily highland agriculturalists; many work seasonally in Kabul and other urban centers.
^Mousavi, Sayed Askar (1998).The Hazaras of Afghanistan: An Historical, Cultural, Economic and Political Study. Curzon Press. p. 148.ISBN0-7007-0630-5.
^Ed (24 April 2012),"Berberi",Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Brill, retrieved13 August 2023
^Monsutti, Alessandro (2005).War and migration: Social networks and economic strategies of the Hazaras of Afghanistan. New York: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-97508-7.
^Monsutti, Alessandro (2005).War and migration: Social networks and economic strategies of the Hazaras of Afghanistan. Translated by Patrick Camiller. Routledge, New York: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-97508-7.
^abcdefKieffer, Charles M."HAZĀRA" [iv. Hazāragi dialect].Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved22 August 2017.
^abcdMonsutti, Alessandro (1 July 2017),"Hazāras",Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, Brill, retrieved7 May 2022,They speak a Persian dialect with many Turkic and a few Mongolian words.
^"Hazara people • Britannica" In English:"The Hazara speak an eastern variety of Persian called Hazaragi with many Mongolic and Turkic words."
^Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica."HAZĀRA".iranicaonline.org. Retrieved26 April 2024.The Hazāras speak a Persian dialect with many Turkish and some Mongolian words.
^Malistani, A. H. Tariq and Gehring, Roman (compilers) (1993) Farhang-i ibtidal-i milli-i Hazarah: bi-inzimam-i tarjamah bih Farsi-i Ingilisi = Hazaragi – Dari/Persian- English: a preliminary glossary A. H. Tariq Malistani, Quetta,OCLC33814814
^Farhadi, A. G. Ravan (1955).Le persan parlé en Afghanistan: Grammaire du kâboli accompagnée d'un recuil de quatrains populaires de la région de Kâbol. Paris.
^Temirkhanov L. (1968)."О некоторых спорных вопросах этнической истории хазарейского народа". Советская этнография. 1. P. 93-94. In Russian:"орды монгольских царевичей и феодалов оказались в таджикском окружении; они смешивались с таджиками, подвергались влиянию персидско-таджикской культуры и постепенно принимали язык таджиков, отсюда и таджикская речь хазарейцев".
^پولادی, حسن (1387).هزارهها: تاریخ، سیاست، اقتصاد و فرهنگ. ترجمهٔ علی عالمی کرمانی. انتشارات عرفان. pp. 205–206.ISBN978--964-06-0527-1.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^گیزابی, محمداکرم (1375).هزارهها و هزارستان اثر گروه تحقیقی پیدی میتلند. ترجمهٔ محمداکرم گیزابی. مجمع نویسندگان افغانستان. p. 192.
^دلجو, عباس (2018).تاریخ باستانی هزارهها. کابل، افغانستان: موسسه انتشارات مقصوی، کابل. p. 222.ISBN978-9936-624-00-9.
^How We Missed the Story: Osama Bin Laden, the Taliban, and the Hijacking of Afghanistan, Roy Gutman, 2008, pp. 138–141
^"تاریخچه ورزش "بزکشی" در افغانستان + تصاویر" [History of "Buzkashi" sport in Afghanistan + Pictures].Young Journalists Club (in Persian). 25 November 2017.Archived from the original on 24 March 2025. Retrieved13 September 2021.
^The World Hazara Council estimates a worldwide population of up to 14 million,[3] which is not backed up by any unbiased source.
^Most unbiased sources estimate that Hazaras make up approximately 9% ofAfghanistan's total population.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13] Some sources, however, claim the figure is as low as 3%,[12][14][2][15] while others suggest it could be as high as 20%.[16][17][15] The World Hazara Council even claims that around 8 to 10 million Hazaras reside in Afghanistan,[18] which would make up to a quarter of the total Afghan population and is not backed up by any unbiased source.
Monsutti, Alessandro (2005).War and migration: Social networks and economic strategies of the Hazaras of Afghanistan. Translated by Patrick Camiller. Routledge, New York: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-97508-7.
Frederiksen, Birthe; Nicolaisen, Ida (1996).Caravans and trade in Afghanistan: The changing life of the nomadic Hazarbuz. Carlsberg Foundation's Nomad Research Project. London: Thames and Hudson.ISBN978-0-500-01687-9.
1 Central Asian (i.e.Turkmeni,Afghani andIranian)Turkmens, distinct from Levantine (i.e.Iraqi andSyrian) Turkmen/Turkoman minorities, who mostly adhere to an Ottoman-Turkish heritage and identity.2 In traditional areas of Turkish settlement (i.e. formerOttoman territories).
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