Hatha yoga (/ˈhʌtə,ˈhɑːtə/;Sanskrit हठयोग,IAST:haṭhayoga)[2] is a branch ofyoga that uses physical techniques to try to preserve and channel vital force or energy. The Sanskrit word हठhaṭha literally means "force", alluding to a system of physical techniques.[3][4] Some hatha yoga style techniques can be traced back at least to the 1st-century CE, in texts such as the HinduSanskrit epics and Buddhism'sPali canon.[5] The oldest dated text so far found to describe hatha yoga, the 11th-centuryAmṛtasiddhi, comes from atantric Buddhist milieu.[6] The oldest texts to use the terminology ofhatha are alsoVajrayana Buddhist.[4] Hindu hatha yoga texts appear from the 11th century onward.
Some of the early hatha yoga texts (11th-13th c.) describe methods to raise and conserve bindu (vital force, that is,semen, and in womenrajas – menstrual fluid). This was seen as the physical essence of life that was constantly dripping down from the head and being lost.[3] Two early hatha yoga techniques sought to either physically reverse this process of dripping by using gravity to trap the bindhu in inverted postures likeviparītakaraṇī, or force bindu upwards through thecentral channel by directing the breath flow into the centre channel usingmudras (yogic seals, not to be confused with handmudras, which are gestures).[3]
Almost all hathayogic texts belong to the Nathsiddhas, and the important early ones (11th-13th c.) are credited toMatsyendranatha and his disciple,Gorakhnath or Gorakshanath (11th c.).[7] EarlyNāth works teach a yoga based on raisingkuṇḍalinī throughenergy channels andchakras, calledLayayoga ("the yoga of dissolution"). However, other early Nāth texts like theVivekamārtaṇḍa can be seen as co-opting the hatha yoga mudrās.[8] Later Nāth as well as Śākta texts adopt the practices of hatha yoga mudras into aSaiva system, melding them with Layayoga methods, without mentioning bindu.[8] These later texts promote a universalist yoga, available to all, "without the need for priestly intermediaries, ritual paraphernalia or sectarian initiations."[8]
In the 20th century, a development of hatha yoga focusing particularly onasanas (the physical postures) became popular throughout the world as a form ofphysical exercise. Thismodern form of yoga is now widely known simply as "yoga".
According to the IndologistJames Mallinson, some haṭha yoga style techniques practised only by ascetics can be traced back at least to the 1st-century CE, in texts such as theSanskrit epics (Hinduism) and thePali canon (Buddhism).[5] ThePali canon contains three passages in which theBuddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate for the purposes of controlling hunger or the mind, depending on the passage.[9] However, there is no mention of the tongue being inserted further back into thenasopharynx as in truekhecarī mudrā. The Buddha also used a posture where pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to modern postures used to stimulateKundalini.[a] In theMahāsaccaka sutta (MN 36), the Buddha mentions how physical practices such as various meditations on holding one's breath did not help him "attain to greater excellence in noble knowledge and insight which transcends the human condition." After trying these, he then sought another path toenlightenment.[9] The term haṭha yoga was first used in the c. 3rd centuryBodhisattvabhūmi, the phrasena haṭhayogena, seemingly meaning only that thebodhisattva would get his qualities "not by force".[10]
The earliest mentions of haṭha yoga as a specific set of techniques are from some seventeen[b]Vajrayana Buddhist texts, mainly tantric works from the 8th century onwards.[10][4] In Puṇḍarīka's c. 1030Vimalaprabhā commentary on theKālacakratantra, haṭha yoga is for the first time defined[10] within the context oftantric sexual ritual:[4]
when the undying moment does not arise because the breath is unrestrained [even] when the image is seen by means of withdrawal (pratyahara) and the other (auxiliaries of yoga, i.e.dhyana,pranayama,dharana, anusmrti andsamadhi), then, having forcefully (hathena) made the breath flow in thecentral channel throughthe practice ofnada, which is about to be explained, [the yogi] should attain the undying moment byrestraining thebindu [i.e. semen] of thebodhicitta in thevajra [penis] when it is in the lotus of wisdom [vagina].[4]
While the actual means of practice are not specified, the forcing of the breath into the central channel and the restraining of ejaculation are central features of later haṭha yoga practice texts.[4][10]
The c. 11th centuryAmṛtasiddhi is the earliest substantial text describing Haṭha yoga, though it does not use the term; it is a tantric Buddhist work, and makes use of metaphors fromalchemy. A manuscript states its date as 1160.[6][11] The text teachesmahābandha,mahāmudrā, and mahāvedha which involve bodily postures and breath control, as a means to preserve amrta or bindu (vital energy) in the head (the "moon") from dripping down the central channel and being burned by the fire (the "sun") at the perineum. The text also attacksVajrayanadeity yoga as ineffective.[12][6] According to Mallinson, later manuscripts and editions of this text have obscured or omitted the Buddhist elements (such as the deityChinnamasta which appears in the earliest manuscripts and was originally a Buddhist deity, only appearing in Hindu works after the 16th century). However, the earliest manuscript makes it clear that this text originated in a Vajrayana Buddhist milieu.[6] The inscription at the end of oneAmṛtasiddhi manuscript ascribes the text toMādhavacandra orAvadhūtacandra and is "said to represent the teachings ofVirūpākṣa".[13] According to Mallinson, this figure is most likely the BuddhistmahasiddhaVirupa.[14]
Another 11th century text,Dispelling the Hindrances of Immortality, is a Tibetan ancillary to theAmṛtasiddhi. Attributed to an Indian, Yogeśvara Amoghavajra, who was living in Tibet, the text describes 108 āsana-like physical movements intended to overcome obstacles to tantric practice.[15]
The c. 10th centuryKubjikāmatatantra anticipates haṭha yoga with its description of the raising ofKundalini, and a 6-chakra system.[16][17]
Around the 11th century, techniques associated with Haṭha yoga also begin to be outlined in a series of early Hindu texts.[10] The aims of these practices weresiddhis (supranormal powers such as levitation) andmukti (liberation).[12]
In India, haṭha yoga is associated in popular tradition with the Yogis of theNatha Sampradaya.[18] Almost all hathayogic texts belong to the Nathsiddhas, and the important ones are credited toGorakhnath or Gorakshanath (c. early 11th century),[7] the founder of theNath Hindu monastic movement in India,[19] though those texts post-date him. Goraknath is regarded by the contemporary Nath-tradition as the disciple ofMatsyendranath (early 10th century), who is celebrated as a saint in both Hindu and Buddhist tantric and haṭha yoga schools, and regarded by tradition as the founder of the Natha Sampradaya. Early haṭha yoga works include:[8][20]
The earliest haṭha yoga methods of theAmṛtasiddhi,Dattātreyayogaśāstra andVivekamārtaṇḍa are used to raise and conserve bindu (semen, and in womenrajas – menstrual fluid) which was seen as the physical essence of life that was constantly dripping down from the head and being lost.[3] This vital essence is also sometimes calledamrta (the nectar of immortality).[8] These techniques sought to either physically reverse this process (by inverted postures likeviparītakaraṇī) or use the breath to force bindu upwards through thecentral channel.[3]
In contrast to these, earlyNāth works like theGorakṣaśataka and theYogabīja teach a yoga based on raising Kundalinī (through śakticālanī mudrā). This is not called haṭha yoga in these early texts, butLayayoga ("the yoga of dissolution"). However, other early Nāth texts like theVivekamārtaṇḍa can be seen as co-opting the mudrās of haṭha yoga meant to preserve bindu. Then, in later Nāth as well as Śākta texts, the adoption of haṭha yoga is more developed, and focused solely on the raising of Kundalinī without mentioning bindu.[8]
Mallinson sees these later texts as promoting a universalist yoga, available to all, without the need to study the metaphysics of Samkhya-yoga or the complex esotericism of Shaiva Tantra. Instead this "democratization of yoga" led to the teaching of these techniques to all people, "without the need for priestly intermediaries, ritual paraphernalia or sectarian initiations."[8]
TheHaṭhayogapradīpikā is one of the most influential texts of Haṭha yoga.[23] It was compiled by Svātmārāma in the 15th century CE from earlier Haṭha yoga texts.[21][17] Earlier texts were ofVedanta or non-dualShaiva orientation,[24] and from both, theHaṭha Yoga Pradīpika borrowed the philosophy of non-duality (advaita). According to Mallinson, this reliance on non-duality helped Haṭha yoga thrive in the medieval period as non-duality became the "dominantsoteriological method in scholarly religious discourse in India".[24] The text lists 35 great yogasiddhas starting withAdi Natha (Hindu god Shiva) followed by Matsyendranath and Gorakshanath.[25] It includes information aboutshatkarma (six acts of self purification), 15asana (postures: seated, laying down, and non-seated), pranayama (breathing) and kumbhaka (breath retention),mudras (internalized energetic practices), meditation,chakras (centers of energy),kundalini, nadanusandhana (concentration on inner sound), and other topics.[26] The text includes the contradictory goals of raising Bindu, inherited from theAmritasiddhi, and of raising Kundalini, inherited from theKubjikamatatantra.[16][17]
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Post-Hathayogapradipika texts on Haṭha yoga include:[27][28]
According to Mallinson, Haṭha yoga has been a broad movement across the Indian traditions, openly available to anyone:[35]
Haṭha yoga, like other methods of yoga, can be practiced by all, regardless of sex, caste, class, or creed. Many texts explicitly state that it is practice alone that leads to success. Sectarian affiliation and philosophical inclination are of no importance. The texts of Haṭha yoga, with some exceptions, do not include teachings on metaphysics or sect-specific practices.[36]
Haṭha yoga represented a trend towards the democratization of yoga insights and religion similar to theBhakti movement. It eliminated the need for "either ascetic renunciation or priestly intermediaries, ritual paraphernalia and sectarian initiations".[35] This led to its broad historic popularity in India. Later in the 20th century, states Mallinson, this disconnect of Haṭha yoga from religious aspects and the democratic access of Haṭha yoga enabled it to spread worldwide.[37]
Between the 17th and 19th century, however, the various urban Hindu and Muslim elites and ruling classes viewed Yogis with derision.[38] They were persecuted during the rule ofAurangzeb; this ended a long period ofreligious tolerance that had defined the rule of his predecessors beginning with Akbar, who famously studied with the yogis and other mystics.[39] Haṭha yoga remained popular in rural India. Negative impression for the Hatha yogis continued during the British colonial rule era. According toMark Singleton, this historical negativity and colonial antipathy likely motivatedSwami Vivekananda to make an emphatic distinction between "merely physical exercises of Haṭha yoga" and the "higher spiritual path ofRaja yoga".[40] This common disdain by the officials and intellectuals slowed the study and adoption of Haṭha yoga.[41][42][c]
A well-known school of Haṭha yoga from the 20th century is theDivine Life Society founded bySwami Sivananda ofRishikesh (1887–1963) and his many disciples including, among others,Swami Vishnu-devananda – founder of InternationalSivananda Yoga Vedanta Centres;Swami Satyananda – of theBihar School of Yoga; andSwami Satchidananda ofIntegral Yoga.[44] The Bihar School of Yoga has been one of the largest Haṭha yoga teacher training centers in India but is little known in Europe and the Americas.[45]
Theos Casimir Bernard's 1943 bookHatha Yoga: The Report of A Personal Experience provides an informative but fictionalised account of traditional Haṭha yoga as a spiritual path.[46][47]
Yoga as exercise, of the type seen in the West, has been greatly influenced bySwami Kuvalayananda and his studentTirumalai Krishnamacharya, who taught from 1924 until his death in 1989. Both Kuvalayananda and Krishnamacharya combined asanas from Haṭha yoga with gymnastic exercises from thephysical culture of the time, dropping most of its religious aspects, to develop a flowing style of physical yoga that placed little or no emphasis on Haṭha yoga's spiritual goals.[48] Among Krishnamacharya's students prominent in popularizing yoga in the West wereK. Pattabhi Jois famous for popularizing the vigorousAshtanga (vinyasa) yoga style,B. K. S. Iyengar who emphasized alignment and the use of props inIyengar Yoga, and byIndra Devi and Krishnamacharya's sonT. K. V. Desikachar.[44] Krishnamacharya-linked schools have become widely known in the Western world.[45] Examples of other branded forms of yoga, with some controversies, that make use of Haṭha yoga includeAnusara Yoga,Bikram Yoga,Integral Yoga,Jivamukti Yoga,Kundalini Yoga,Kripalu Yoga,Kriya Yoga,Sivananda Yoga andViniyoga.[49] After about 1975, yoga has become increasingly popular globally, in both developed and developing countries.[50]
Haṭha yoga practice is complex and requires certain characteristics of the yogi. Section 1.16 of theHaṭha yoga Pradipika, for example, states these to beutsaha (enthusiasm, fortitude),sahasa (courage),dhairya (patience),jnana tattva (essence for knowledge),nishcaya (resolve, determination) andtyaga (solitude, renunciation).[25]
In Western culture, Haṭha yoga is typically understood as exercise usingasanas and it can be practiced as such.[51] In the Indian and Tibetan traditions, Haṭha yoga integrates ideas of ethics, diet, cleansing, pranayama (breathing exercises), meditation and a system for spiritual development of the yogi.[52][53]
The aims of Haṭha yoga in various Indian traditions have included physicalsiddhis (special powers, bodily benefits such as slowing age effects, magical powers) and spiritual liberation (moksha, mukti).[3][54] According toMikel Burley, some of thesiddhis are symbolic references to the cherished soteriological goals of Indian religions. For example, theVayu Siddhi or "conquest of the air" literally implies rising into the air as in levitation, but it likely has a symbolic meaning of "a state of consciousness into a vast ocean of space" or "voidness" ideas found respectively in Hinduism and Buddhism.[55]
Some traditions such as the Kaula tantric sect of Hinduism and Sahajiya tantric sect of Buddhism pursued more esoteric goals such as alchemy (Nagarjuna, Carpita), magic,kalavancana (cheating death) andparakayapravesa (entering another's body).[3][56][57] Mallinson, however, disagrees and suggests that such fringe practices are far removed from the mainstream Yoga's goal as meditation–driven means to liberation in Indian religions.[58] The majority of historic Haṭha yoga texts do not give any importance tosiddhis.[59] The mainstream practice considered the pursuit of magical powers as a distraction or hindrance to Haṭha yoga's ultimate aim of spiritual liberation, self-knowledge or release from rebirth that the Indian traditions callmukti ormoksha.[3][54]
The goals of Haṭha yoga, in its earliest texts, were linked tomumukshu (seeker of liberation, moksha). The later texts added and experimented with the goals ofbubhukshu (seeker of enjoyment, bhoga).[60]
Some Haṭha texts place major emphasis onmitahara, which means "measured diet" or "moderate eating". For example, sections 1.58 to 1.63 and 2.14 of theHaṭha Yoga Pradipika and sections 5.16 to 5.32 of theGheranda Samhita discuss the importance of proper diet to the body.[61][62] They link the food one eats and one's eating habits to balancing the body and gaining most benefits from the practice of Haṭha yoga. Eating, states theGheranda Samhita, is a form of a devotional act to the temple of body, as if one is expressing affection for the gods.[61] Similarly, sections 3.20 and 5.25 of theShiva Samhita includesmitahara as an essential part of a holistic Haṭha yoga practice.[63]
Verses 1.57 through 1.63 of the critical edition ofHaṭha Yoga Pradipika suggests that taste cravings should not drive one's eating habits, rather the best diet is one that is tasty, nutritious and likable as well as sufficient to meet the needs of one's body and for one's inner self. It recommends that one must "eat only when one feels hungry" and "neither overeat nor eat to completely fill one's stomach; rather leave a quarter portion empty and fill three quarters with quality food and fresh water".[64]
According to another text, theGoraksha Sataka, eating a controlled diet is one of the three important parts of a complete and successful practice. The text does not provide details or recipes. The text states, according to Mallinson, "food should be unctuous and sweet", one must not overeat and stop when still a bit hungry (leave a quarter of the stomach empty), and whatever one eats should pleaseShiva.[65]
Haṭha yoga teaches various steps of inner body cleansing with consultations of one's yoga teacher. Its texts vary in specifics and number of cleansing methods, ranging from simple hygiene practices to the peculiar exercises such as reversing seminal fluid flow.[67] The most common list is called theshatkarmas, or six cleansing actions:dhauti (cleanse teeth and body),basti (cleanse rectum),neti (cleanse nasal passages),trataka (cleanse eyes),nauli (abdominal massage) andkapalabhati (cleanse phlegm).[67] The actual procedure for cleansing varies by the Haṭha yoga text, some suggesting a water wash and others describing the use of cleansing aids such as cloth.[68]
Prāṇāyāma is made out of two Sanskrit wordsprāṇa (प्राण, breath, vital energy, life force)[69][70] andāyāma (आयाम, restraining, extending, stretching).[71][70]
Some Haṭha yoga texts teach breath exercises but do not refer to it as Pranayama. For example, section 3.55 of theGherandaSamhita calls itGhatavastha (state of being the pot).[72] In others, the termKumbhaka orPrana-samrodha replaces Pranayama.[73] Regardless of the nomenclature, proper breathing and the use of breathing techniques during a posture is a mainstay of Haṭha yoga. Its texts state that proper breathing exercises cleanse and balance the body.[74]
Pranayama is one of the core practices of Haṭha yoga, found in its major texts as one of the limbs regardless of whether the total number of limbs taught are four or more.[76][77][78] It is the practice of consciously regulating breath (inhalation and exhalation), a concept shared with all schools of yoga.[79][80]
This is done in several ways, inhaling and then suspending exhalation for a period, exhaling and then suspending inhalation for a period, slowing the inhalation and exhalation, consciously changing the time/length of breath (deep, short breathing), combining these with certain focussed muscle exercises.[81]Pranayama or proper breathing is an integral part ofasanas. According to section 1.38 ofHaṭha yoga pradipika,Siddhasana is the most suitable and easiest posture to learn breathing exercises.[75]
The different Haṭha yoga texts discusspranayama in various ways. For example,Haṭha yoga pradipka in section 2.71 explains it as a threefold practice:recaka (exhalation),puraka (inhalation) andkumbhaka (retention).[82] During the exhalation and inhalation, the text states that three things move: air, prana and yogi's thoughts, and all three are intimately connected.[82] It iskumbhaka where stillness and dissolution emerges. The text divideskumbhaka into two kinds:sahita (supported) andkevala (complete).Sahita kumbhaka is further sub-divided into two types: retention with inhalation, retention with exhalation.[83] Each of these breath units are then combined in different permutations, time lengths, posture and targeted muscle exercises in the belief that these aerate and assist blood flow to targeted regions of the body.[81][84]
Before starting yoga practice, state the Haṭha yoga texts, the yogi must establish a suitable place. This is to be away from all distractions, preferably amathika (hermitage) distant from falling rocks, fire and a damp shifting surface.[86] Once a peaceful stable location has been chosen, the yogi begins the posture exercises calledasanas. These postures come in numerous forms. For a beginner, states the historian of religionMircea Eliade, the asanas are uncomfortable, typically difficult, cause the body to shake, and are typically unbearable to hold for extended periods of time.[87] However, with repetition and persistence, as the muscle tone improves, the effort reduces and posture improves. According to the Haṭha yoga texts, each posture becomes perfect when the "effort disappears", one no longer thinks about the posture and one's body position, breathes normally inpranayama, and is able to dwell in one's meditation (anantasamapattibhyam).[88]
Theasanas vary significantly between Haṭha yoga texts, and some of the names are used for different poses.[89] Most of the earlyasanas are inspired by nature, such as a form of union with symmetric, harmonious flowing shapes of animals, birds or plants.[90]
| Sanskrit[d] | English | Gheranda Samhita [91] | Haṭha Yoga Pradipika [91][92] | Shiva Samhita [93] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bhadrāsana | Fortunate | 2.9–910 | 1.53–954 | — |
| Bhujaṅgāsana | Serpent | 2.42–943 | — | — |
| Dhanurāsana | Bow | 2.18 | 1.25 | — |
| Garuḍāsana | Eagle | 2.37 | — | — |
| Gomukhāsana | Cow face | 2.16 | 1.20 | — |
| Gorakṣāsana | Cowherd | 2.24–925 | 1.28–929 | 3.108–9112 |
| Guptāsana | Secret | 2.20 | — | — |
| Kukkutāsana | Rooster | 2.31 | 1.23 | — |
| Kūrmāsana | Tortoise | 2.32 | 1.22 | — |
| Makarāsana | Crocodile | 2.40 | — | — |
| Mandukāsana | Frog | 2.34 | — | — |
| Matsyāsana | Fish | 2.21 | — | — |
| Matsyendrāsana | Matsyendra's pose | 2.22–923 | 1.26–927 | — |
| Mayūrāsana | Peacock | 2.29–930 | 1.30–931 | — |
| Muktāsana | Freedom | 2.11 | — | — |
| Padmāsana | Lotus | 2.8 | 1.44–949 | 3.102–9107 |
| Paschimottanāsana | Seated Forward Bend | 2.26 | 1.30–931 | — |
| Sankatāsana | Contracted | 2.28 | — | — |
| Shalabhāsana | Locust | 2.39 | — | — |
| Śavāsana | Corpse | 2.19 | 1.34 | — |
| Siddhāsana | Accomplished | 2.7 | 1.35–943 | 3.97–9101 |
| Siṁhāsana | Lion | 2.14–915 | 1.50–952 | — |
| Yogāsana | Union | 2.44–945 | — | — |
| Svastikāsana | Auspicious | 2.13 | 1.19 | 3.113–9115 |
| Vṛṣāsana | Bull | 2.38 | — | — |
| Uṣṭrāsana | Camel | 2.41 | — | — |
| Utkaṭāsana | Fierce | 2.27 | — | — |
| Uttana Kurmāsana | Raised Tortoise | 2.33 | 1.24 | — |
| Uttana Mandukāsana | Raised Frog | 2.35 | — | — |
| Vajrāsana | Thunderbolt | 2.12 | — | — |
| Virāsana | Hero | 2.17 | — | 3.21 |
| Vṛkṣāsana | Tree | 2.36 | — | — |
According to Mallinson, in the earliest formulations, Haṭha yoga was a means to raise and preserve the bindu, believed to be one of the vital energies. The two early Haṭha yoga techniques to achieve this were inverted poses to trap the bindu using gravity, ormudras (yogic seals)[e] to make breath flow into the centre channel and force bindu up. However, in later Haṭha yoga, theKaula visualization of Kuṇḍalini rising through a system of chakras was overlaid onto the earlier bindu-oriented system. The aim was to access amṛta (the nectar of immortality) situated in the head, which subsequently floods the body, in contradiction with the early Haṭha yoga goal of preserving bindu.[95]
The classical sources for the mudras are theGheranda Samhita and theHatha Yoga Pradipika.[96] The yoga mudras are diverse in the parts of the body involved and in the procedures required, as inMula Bandha,Mahamudra,Viparita Karani,Khecarī mudrā, andVajroli mudra.[97]
TheHaṭha Yoga Pradipika text dedicates almost a third of its verses tomeditation.[98] Similarly, other major texts of Haṭha yoga such as theShiva Samhita and theGheranda Samhita discuss meditation.[99] In all three texts, meditation is the ultimate goal of all the preparatory cleansing, asanas, pranayama and other steps. The aim of this meditation is to realizeNada-Brahman, or the complete absorption and union with the Brahman through inner mystic sound.[99] According to Guy Beck – a professor of Religious Studies known for his studies on Yoga and music, a Hatha yogi in this stage of practice seeks "inner union of physical opposites", into an inner state of samadhi that is described by Haṭha yoga texts in terms of divine sounds, and as a union withNada-Brahman in musical literature of ancient India.[100]
Haṭha yoga is a branch of yoga. It shares numerous ideas and doctrines with other forms of yoga, such as the more ancient system taught byPatanjali. The differences are in the addition of some aspects, and different emphasis on others.[101] For example,pranayama is crucial in all yogas, but it is the mainstay of Haṭha yoga.[74][102] Mudras and certain kundalini-related ideas are included in Haṭha yoga, but not mentioned in theYoga Sutras of Patanjali.[103] Patanjali yoga considersasanas important but dwells less on variousasanas than the Haṭha yoga texts. In contrast, the Haṭha yoga texts consider meditation as important but dwell less on meditation methodology than Patanjali yoga.[104]
The Haṭha yoga texts acknowledge and refer to Patanjali yoga, attesting to the latter's antiquity. However, this acknowledgment is essentially only in passing, as they offer no serious commentary or exposition of Patanjali's system. This suggests that Haṭha yoga developed as a branch of the more ancient yoga.[105] According to P.V. Kane, Patanjali yoga concentrates more on the yoga of the mind, while Haṭha yoga focuses on body and health.[106] Some Hindu texts do not recognize this distinction. For example, theYogatattva Upanishad teaches a system that includes all aspects of theYoga Sutras of Patanjali, and all additional elements of Haṭha yoga practice.[107]
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