Harun established the legendary libraryBayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom") inBaghdad in present-dayIraq, and during his rule Baghdad began to flourish as a world center of knowledge, culture and trade.[1] During his rule, the family ofBarmakids, which played a deciding role in establishing the Abbasid Caliphate, declined gradually. In 796, he moved his court and government toRaqqa in present-daySyria. Domestically, Harun pursued policies similar to those of his fatherAl-Mahdi. He released many of theUmayyads and 'Alids his brotherAl-Hadi had imprisoned and declared amnesty for all political groups of theQuraysh.[2] Large scale hostilities broke out withByzantium, and under his rule, the Abbasid Empire reached its peak.[3]
AFrankish mission came to offer Harun friendship in 799. Harun sent various presents with the emissaries on their return toCharlemagne's court, including a clock that Charlemagne and his retinue deemed to be a conjuration because of the sounds it emanated and the tricks it displayed every time an hour ticked.[4][5][6] Portions of the fictionalOne Thousand and One Nights are set in Harun's court and some of its stories involve Harun himself.[7] Harun's life and court have been the subject of many other tales, both factual and fictitious.
Hārūn was born inRey, then part ofJibal in the Abbasid Caliphate, in present-dayTehran Province,Iran. He was the son ofal-Mahdi, the third Abbasid caliph (r. 775–785), and his wifeal-Khayzuran, who was a woman of strong and independent personality who greatly influenced affairs of state in the reigns of her husband and sons. Growing up Harun studied history, geography, rhetoric, music, poetry, and economics. However, most of his time was dedicated to masteringhadith and the Quran. In addition, he underwent advanced physical education as a future mujahid, and as a result, he practiced swordplay, archery, and learned the art of war.[8] His birth date is debated, with various sources giving dates from 763 to 766.[9]
Before becoming a caliph, in 780 and again in 782, Hārūn had already nominally led campaigns against the caliphate's traditional enemy, theEastern Roman Empire, ruled byEmpress Irene. Thelatter expedition was a huge undertaking, and even reached the Asian suburbs ofConstantinople. According to the Muslim chroniclerAl-Tabari, the Byzantines lost tens of thousands of soldiers, and Harun employed 20,000 mules to carry the riches back. Upon his return to the Abbasid realm, the cost of a sword fell to one dirham and the price of a horse to a single gold Byzantine dinar.[10]
Harun's raids against the Byzantines elevated his political image and once he returned, he was given thelaqab "al-Rashid", meaning "the Rightly-Guided One". He was promoted to crown prince and given the responsibility of governing the empire's western territories, fromSyria toAzerbaijan.[11]
Upon the death of his father in 785, Harun's brotheral-Hadi became caliph. However, al-Hadi's reign was brief: a year and two months. Al-Hadi clashed with their mother over her great influence in court. The historianal-Tabari notes varying accounts of al-Hadi's death, e.g. an abdominal ulcer or assassination prompted by his own mother.
On the night of al-Hadi's death,al-Khayzuran quickly releasedYahya ibn Khalid from prison and ordered him to pay the army's wages, send the letters to the governors to pledge allegiance to al-Rashīd, and prepare him as caliph. They summoned the commanders of the army,Harthama ibn A'yan andKhuzayma ibn Khazim, and asked them to swear allegiance to Harun as caliph. Khuzayma reportedly gathered and armed 5,000 of his own followers, dragged the Ja'far ibn al-Hādī from his bed and forced him to publicly renounce his claims in favour of Hārūn. Hārūn became caliph in 786 when he was in his early twenties. At the time, he was tall, good looking, and slim but strongly built, with wavy hair and olive skin.[12] On the day of accession, his sonal-Ma'mun was born, andal-Amin some little time later: the latter was the son ofZubaida, a granddaughter ofal-Mansur (founder of the city of Baghdad); so he took precedence over the former, whose mother was a Persian. Upon his accession, Harun ledFriday prayers in Baghdad'sGreat Mosque and then sat publicly as officials and the layman alike lined up to swear allegiance and declare their happiness at his ascent toAmir al-Mu'minin.[13] He began his reign by appointing very able ministers, who carried on the work of the government so well that they greatly improved the condition of the people.[14]
Under Hārūn al-Rashīd's rule, Baghdad flourished into the most splendid city of its period. Tribute paid by many rulers to the caliph fundedarchitecture, thearts and court luxuries.[citation needed]
In 796, Hārūn moved the entire court toRaqqa on the middleEuphrates, where he spent 12 years, most of his reign. He appointed theHanafi juristMuhammad al-Shaybani asqadi (judge), but dismissed him in 803. He visited Baghdad only once. Several reasons may have influenced the decision to move to Raqqa: its closeness to the Byzantine border, its excellent communication lines via the Euphrates to Baghdad and via the Balikh river to the north and viaPalmyra to Damascus, rich agricultural land, and the strategic advantage over any rebellion which might arise in Syria and the middle Euphrates area.Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani, in his anthology of poems, depicts the splendid life in his court. In Raqqa the Barmakids managed the fate of the empire, and both heirs, al-Amin and al-Ma'mun, grew up there. At some point the royal court relocated again toAl-Rayy, the capital city ofKhorasan, where the famous philologist and leader of theKufan school,Al-Kisa'i, accompanied the caliph with his entourage. When al-Kisa'i became ill while in Al-Rayy, it is said that Harun visited him daily. It seems al-Shaybani and al-Kisa'i both died there on the same day in 804.
For the administration of the whole empire, he fell back on his mentor and longtime associate Yahya bin Khalid bin Barmak. Rashid appointed him as hisvizier with full executive powers, and, for seventeen years, Yahya and his sons served Rashid faithfully in whatever assignment he entrusted to them.[15]
Harun made pilgrimages to Mecca bycamel (2,820 km or 1,750 mi from Baghdad) several times, e.g., 793, 795, 797, 802 and last in 803. Tabari concludes his account of Harun's reign with these words: "It has been said that when Harun ar-Rashid died, there were nine hundred million odd (dirhams) in the state treasury."[16]
According to Shia belief, Harun imprisoned and poisoned Musa ibn Ja'far, the 7th Imam, in Baghdad.[citation needed]
Under al-Rashid, each city had its own law enforcement, which besides keeping order was supposed to examine the public markets in order to ensure, for instance, that proper scales and measures were used; enforce the payment of debts; and clamp down on illegal activities such as gambling, usury, and sales of alcohol.[17]
Harun was a great patron of art and learning, and is best known for the unsurpassed splendor of his court and lifestyle. Some of the stories, perhaps the earliest, of "The Thousand and One Nights" were inspired by the glittering Baghdad court. The character King Shahryar (whose wife, Scheherazade, tells the tales) may have been based on Harun himself.[18]
A silverdirham minted in Madinat al-Salam (Baghdad) in 170AH (786 CE). At the reverse, the inner marginal inscription says: "By order of the slave of God, Harun,Commander of the Faithful"
Hārūn was influenced by the will of his powerful mother in the governance of the empire until her death in 789; When he became caliph, Harun allowed her (Khayzuran) a free hand and, at times, restrained his own desires out of deference to her expressed wishes, and Khayzuran acted as an overseer of affairs, and Yahya deferred to her and acted on her advice. Hisvizier (chief minister)Yahya ibn Khalid, Yahya's sons (especiallyJa'far ibn Yahya), and otherBarmakids generally controlled the administration. The position ofPersians in the Abbasid caliphal court reached its peak during al-Rashid's reign.[19]
The Barmakids were anIranian family (fromBalkh) that dated back to theBarmak, a hereditaryBuddhist priest ofNava Vihara, who converted after the Islamic conquest of Balkh and became very powerful under al-Mahdi. Yahya had helped Hārūn to obtain the caliphate, and he and his sons were in high favor until 798, when the caliph threw them in prison and confiscated their land.Al-Tabari dates this event to 803 and lists various reasons for it: Yahya's entering the Caliph's presence without permission; Yahya's opposition to Muhammad ibn al Layth, who later gained Harun's favour; and Ja'far's release of Yahya ibn Abdallah ibn Hasan, whom Harun had imprisoned.[citation needed]
The fall of the Barmakids is far more likely due to their behaving in a manner that Harun found disrespectful (such as entering his court unannounced) and making decisions in matters of state without first consulting him.[citation needed]Al-Fadl ibn al-Rabi succeeded Yahya the Barmakid as Harun's chief minister.[citation needed]
Harun al-Rashid at left receiving a delegation sent byCharlemagne to his court in Baghdad. 1864 painting by Julius Köckert.
BothEinhard andNotker the Stammerer refer to envoys traveling between the courts of Harun andCharlemagne, king of theFranks, and entering friendly discussions about Christian access to holy sites and gift exchanges. Notker mentions Charlemagne sent Harun Spanish horses, colorfulFrisian cloaks and impressive hunting dogs. In 802 Harun sent Charlemagne a present consisting ofsilks,brasscandelabra,perfume,balsam,ivory chessmen, a colossal tent with many-colored curtains, anelephant namedAbul-Abbas, and awater clock that marked the hours by dropping bronze balls into a bowl, as mechanicalknights – one for each hour – emerged from little doors which shut behind them. The presents were unprecedented in Western Europe and may have influencedCarolingian art.[20] This exchange of embassies was due to the fact that Harun was interested, like Charlemagne, in subduing theUmayyademirs of Córdoba. Also, the common enmity against the Byzantines was what brought Harun closer to the contemporary Charlemagne.[citation needed]
When the Byzantine empressIrene was deposed in 802,Nikephoros I became emperor and refused to pay tribute to Harun, saying that Irene should have been receiving the tribute the whole time. News of this angered Harun, who wrote a message on the back of the Byzantine emperor's letter and said, "In the name of God the most merciful, FromAmir al-Mu'minin Harun ar-Rashid, commander of the faithful, to Nikephoros, dog of the Romans. Thou shalt not hear, thou shalt behold my reply". Aftercampaigns in Asia Minor, Nikephoros was forced to conclude a treaty, with humiliating terms.[21][22] According to Dr Ahmad Mukhtar al-Abadi, it is due to the particularly fierce second retribution campaign against Nikephoros, that the Byzantine practically ceased any attempt to incite any conflict against the Abbasid again until the rule ofAl-Ma'mun.[23][24]
When diplomats and messengers visited Harun in his palace, he was screened behind a curtain. No visitor or petitioner could speak first, interrupt, or oppose the caliph. They were expected to give their undivided attention to the caliph and calculate their responses with great care.[33]
Dinar of Harun 171 AH (AD 787–88), the early years of his reign
Because of theThousand and One Nights tales, Harun al-Rashid turned into a legendary figure obscuring his true historic personality. In fact, his reign initiated the political disintegration of the Abbasid caliphate.Syria was inhabited by tribes with Umayyad sympathies and remained the bitter enemy of the Abbasids, while Egypt witnessed uprisings against Abbasids due to maladministration and arbitrary taxation. The Umayyads had been established in Spain in 755, theIdrisids in Morocco in 788, and theAghlabids in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia) in 800. Besides, unrest flared up in Yemen, and the Kharijites rose in rebellion in Daylam, Kerman, Fars and Sistan. Revolts also broke out inKhorasan, and al-Rashid waged many campaigns against the Byzantines.[citation needed]
Al-Rashid appointedAli bin Isa bin Mahan as the governor of Khorasan, who tried to bring to heel the princes and chieftains of the region, and to reimpose the full authority of the central government on them. This new policy met with fierce resistance and provoked numerous uprisings in the region.[citation needed]
Harun's first wife wasZubaidah. She was the daughter of his paternal uncle, Ja'far and maternal aunt Salsal, sister ofAl-Khayzuran.[34] They married in 781–82, at the residence of Muhammad bin Sulayman in Baghdad. She had one son, CaliphAl-Amin.[35] She died in 831.[36] Another of his wives was Azizah, daughter of Ghitrif, brother of Al-Khayzuran.[37] She had been formerly married toSulayman ibn Abi Ja'far, who had divorced her.[36] Another was Ghadir also known as Amat-al-Aziz, who had been formerly a concubine of his brother al-Hadi.[37] She had one son Ali.[35] She died in 789.[37] Another wife wasUmm Muhammad, the daughter of Salih al-Miskin and Umm Abdullah, the daughter of Isa bin Ali. They married in November–December 803 in Al-Raqqah. She had been formerly been married toIbrahim ibn al-Mahdi, who had repudiated her.[36] Another wife married around the same year wasAbbasa, daughter ofSulayman ibn Abi Ja'far.[36] Another wife was Jurashiyyah al-Uthmanniyah. She was the daughter of Abdullah bin Muhammad, and had descended fromUthman, the third Caliph of theRashidun.[36]
Harun's earliest known concubine was Hailanah. She had been a slave girl ofYahya ibn Khalid, the Barmakid. It was she who begged him, while he was yet a prince, to take her away from the elderly Yahya. Harun then approached Yahya, who presented him with the girl. She died three years later[38] in 789–90,[39] and Harun mourned her deeply.[38] Another concubine wasDananir. She was a Barmakid, and had been formerly a slave girl of Yahya ibn Khalid. She had been educated at Medina and had studied instrumental and vocal music.[40] Another concubine wasMarajil. She was a Persian, and came from distant Badhaghis in Persia. She was one of the ten maids presented to Harun. She gave birth to Abdullah (future caliphAl-Ma'mun) on the night of Harun's accession to the throne, in September 786, in whose birth she died. Her son was then adopted by Zubaidah.[35] Another concubine was Qasif, mother ofAl-Qasim. He was Harun's second son, born to a concubine mother. Harun's eldest daughter Sukaynah was also born to her.[41]
Another concubine wasMaridah. Her father was Shabib.[42] She was a Sogdian, and was born in Kufah. She was one of the ten maids presented to Harun by Zubaidah. She had five children. These were Abu Ishaq (future caliphal-Mu'tasim), Abu Isma'il, Umm Habib, and two others whose names are unknown. She was Harun's favourite concubine.[43] Some other favourite concubines were, Dhat al-Khal, Sihr, and Diya. Diya died much to Harun's sorrow.[44] Dhat al-Khal also known as Khubth[45] and Khunth,[46] was a singer, belonging to a slave-dealer who was himself a freedman of Abbasah, the sister of Al-Rashid. She caught the fancy of Ibrahim al-Mausili, whose songs in praise of her soon reached Harun's attention, who bought her for the enormous sum of 70,000 dinars.[47] She was the mother of Harun's son, Abu al-Abbas Muhammad.[45][47] Sihr was mother of Harun's daughters, Khadijah[47] and Karib.[48] Another concubine wasInan. Her father was Abdullah.[49] She was born and brought up in the Yamamah in central Arabia. She was a singer and a poet, and had been a slave girl of Abu Khalid al-Natifi.[50] She bore Harun two sons, both of whom died young. She accompanied him to Khurasan where he, and, soon after, she died.[51]
Another concubine was Ghadid, also known as Musaffa, and she was mother of Harun's daughters, Hamdunah[52] and Fatimah.[48] She was his favourite concubine.[52] Hamdunah and Fatimah married Al-Hadi's sons, Isma'il and Ja'far respectively.[53] Another concubine was Shikl. She was the mother of Abu Ali.[54] She was purchased by Al-Rashid along with another girl named Shadhr[55] also known as Sukkar.[45] When Shadhr became pregnant and had a child named Umm Abiha,[54] Shikl grew envious of her. This jealousy escalated to the point where it became widely known. Later, Shikl herself became pregnant and gave birth to Abu Ali. Despite the deaths of both mothers, the animosity between Abu Ali and Umm Abiha persisted.[55] Another concubine was Hilanah. She had been formerly a concubine of his brother al-Hadi.[56]
Another of Harun's concubines was the captive daughter of a Greek churchman ofHeraclea acquired with the fall of that city in 806. Zubaidah once more presented him with one of her personal maids who had caught his fancy. Harun's half-brother, while governor of Egypt from 795 to 797, also sent him an Egyptian maid who immediately won his favour.[57] Some other concubines were namely: Ri'm, mother of Salih; Irbah, mother of Abu Isa Muhammad; Sahdhrah, mother of Abu Yaqub Muhammad; Rawah, mother of Abu Sulayman Muhammad; Dawaj, mother of Abu Ali Muhammad; Kitman, mother of Abu Ahmad Muhammad; Hulab, mother of Arwa; Irabah, mother of Umm al-Hassan; Rahiq, mother of Umm Salamah; Khzq, mother of Umm al-Qasim; Haly, mother of Umm Ja'far Ramlah; Aniq, mother of Umm Ali; Samandal, mother of Umm al-Ghaliyah; Zinah, mother of Raytah;[58] Qaina;[59] Shajw.[46]
Many anecdotes attached themselves to the person of Harun al-Rashid in the centuries following his rule.Saadi of Shiraz inserted a number of them into hisGulistan.
Al-Masudi relates a number of interesting anecdotes inThe Meadows of Gold that illuminate the caliph's character. For example, he recounts Harun's delight when his horse came in first, closely followed by al-Ma'mun's, at a race that Harun held at Raqqa. Al-Masudi tells the story of Harun setting his poets a challenging task. When others failed to please him, Miskin of Medina succeeded superbly well. The poet then launched into a moving account of how much it had cost him to learn that song. Harun laughed and said that he did not know which was more entertaining, the song or the story. He rewarded the poet.[60]
There is also the tale of Harun asking Ishaq ibn Ibrahim to keep singing. The musician did so until the caliph fell asleep. Then, strangely, a handsome young man appeared, snatched the musician's lute, sang a very moving piece (al-Masudi quotes it) and left. On awakening and being informed of that, Harun said Ishaq ibn Ibrahim had received a supernatural visitation.
Shortly before he died, Harun is said to have been reading some lines byAbu al-Atahiya about the transitory nature of the power and pleasures of this world, an anecdote related to other caliphs as well.
Every morning, Harun gave one thousand dirhams to charity and made one hundred prostrations a day.[16] Harun famously used to look up at rain clouds in the sky and said: "rain where you like, but I will get the land tax!"[61][additional citation(s) needed]
Harun was terrified for his soul in the afterlife. It was reported that he quickly cried when he thought of God and read poems about the briefness of life.[62][additional citation(s) needed]
Soon after he became caliph, Harun asked his servant to bring him Ibn al-Sammak, a renowned scholar, to obtain wisdom from him. Harun asked al-Sammak what he would like to tell him. Al-Sammak replied, "I would like you always to remember that one day you will stand alone before your God. You will then be consigned either to Heaven or to Hell." That was too harsh for Harun's liking, and he was obviously disturbed. His servant cried out in protest that the Prince of the Faithful will definitely go to heaven after he has ruled justly on earth. However, al-Sammak ignored the interruption and looked straight into the eyes of Harun and said that "you will not have this man to defend you on that day."[62]
An official, Maan ibn Zaidah, had fallen out of favor with Harun. When Harun saw him in court, he said that "you have grown old." The elderly man responded, "Yes, O Commander of the Faithful in your service." Harun replied, "But you have still some energy left." The old man replied that "what I have, is yours to dispose of as you wish... and I am bold in opposing your foes." Harun was satisfied with the encounter and made the man governor ofBasra for his final years.[63]
OnHajj, he distributed large amounts of money to the people ofMecca andMedina and to poor pilgrims en route. He always took a number of ascetics with him, and whenever he was unable to go on pilgrimage, he sent dignitaries and three hundred clerics at his own expense.[64]
One day, Harun was visiting a dignitary when he was struck by his beautiful slave. Harun asked the man to give her to him. The man obliged but was visibly disturbed by the loss. Afterward, Harun felt sorry for what he had done and gave her back.[65][additional citation(s) needed]
Harun was an excellent horseman, enjoyed hunting (with Salukis, falcons, and hawks) and was fond of military exercises such as charging dummies with his sword. Harun was also the first Abbasid caliph to have played and promoted chess.[66]
Harun desired a slave girl that was owned by an official named Isa who refused to give her to Harun, despite threats. Isa explained that he swore (in the middle of a sex act) that if he ever gave away or sold her, he would divorce his wife, free his slaves, and give all of his possessions to the impoverished. Yusuf, a judge and advisor to Harun, was called to arbitrate the case and to figure out a legal way for Isa to maintain his belongings even if Harun walked away with the girl. Yusuf decided that if Isa gave half of the girl to Harun and sold him the other half, it could not be said that Isa had either given her away or sold her, keeping his promise.[67][additional citation(s) needed]
Harun had an anxious soul and supposedly was prone to walk the streets of Baghdad at night. At timesJa'far ibn Yahya accompanied him. The night-time tours likely arose from a genuine and sympathetic concern in the well-being of his people, for it is said that he was assiduous to relieve any of their trials and tend to their needs.[63]
A major revolt led byRafi ibn al-Layth was started inSamarqand which forced Harun al-Rashid to move toKhorasan. He first removed and arrested Ali bin Isa bin Mahan but the revolt continued unchecked. (Harun had dismissed Ali and replaced him withHarthama ibn A'yan, and in 808 marched himself east to deal with the rebelRafi ibn al-Layth, but died in March 809 while atTus).[68][69] Harun al-Rashid became ill and died very soon after when he reachedSanabad village inTus and was buried inDar al-Imarah, the summer palace ofHumayd ibn Qahtaba, the Abbasid governor of Khorasan. Due to this historical event, the Dar al-Imarah was known as theMausoleum of Haruniyyeh. The location later became known asMashhad ("The Place of Martyrdom") because of the martyrdom ofImam al-Ridha in 818. Harun al-Rashid and his firstHeir, prince al-Amin (Al-Amin was nominated first heir, Al-Ma'mun second and Al-Qasim was thirdheir.) After Harun's death in 809 he was succeeded byAl-Amin.
Al-Rashid become a prominent figure in theMuslim andArab culture, he has been described as one of the most famous Arabs in history. All theAbbasid caliphs after him were his descendants.
About his accession famous poet and musicianal-Mawsili said:
Did you not see how the sun came out of hiding on Harun's accession and flooded the world with light[70]
About his reign, famous Arab historianAl-Masudi said:
So great were the Splendour and riches of his reign, such was its prosperity, that this period has been called "the Honeymoon".[71]
Al-Rashid become the progenitor of subsequent Abbasid caliphs. Al-Rashid nominated his sonMuhammad al-Amin as his first heir. Muhammad had an elder half-brother, Abdallah, the futureal-Ma'mun (r. 813–833), who had been born in September 786 (six months older than him) However, Abdallah's mother was a Persian concubine, and his pure Abbasid lineage gave Muhammad seniority over his half-brother.[72][73] Indeed, he was the only Abbasid caliph to claim such descent.[73] Already in 792, Harun had Muhammad receive the oath of allegiance (bay'ah) with the name ofal-Amīn ("The Trustworthy"), effectively marking him out as his main heir, while Abdallah was not named second heir, under the nameal-Maʾmūn ("The Trusted One") until 799.[72][73] and his third sonQasim was nominatedthird heir, however he never became caliph.Harun is sometimes accused of weakening the Abbasid legacy by dividing the kingdoms central powers between his two sons. This ultimately created tension between the two brothers.[74] Among his sons, al-Amin became caliph after his death in 809. Al-Amin ruled from 809 to 813, until acivil war broke between him and his brother Abdallah al-Ma'mun (Governor of Khorasan). The reason of war were that caliph al-Amin tried to remove al-Ma'mun as his heir. Al-Ma'mun became caliph in 813 and ruled the caliphate for two decades until 833. He was succeeded by another of Harun's son Abu Ishaq Muhammad (better known asAl-Mu'tasim), his mother wasMarida, a concubine.[75][76]
Harun al-Rashid as depicted in theArabian Nights (One Thousand and One Nights).
Sketch drawing of Harun al-Rashid by poet and visual artistKahlil Gibran (1883–1931)
Harun al-Rashid from the book Kitab khizanat al-ayyam fī tarajim al-ʻizam, first published in New york in 1899.
A sketch representation of Hārūn al-Rashid from a book entitled Sayr Mulhimah:Min al-Sharq wa-al-Gharb, first translated into Arabic and published in Egypt, 1381AH/1961
Harun al-Rashid as depicted in the bookHarun Al-Rashid (1951)
Harun al-Rashid was a main figure and character in several of the stories in some of the oldest versions of theOne Thousand and One Nights.
The Indian television seriesAlif Laila (1993–1997), an adaptation of theArabian Nights, features several tales involving the caliph from the classic collection of stories.[77]
Hārūn ar-Rashīd figures throughoutJames Joyce'sUlysses, in a dream ofStephen Dedalus, one of the protagonists. Stephen's efforts to recall this dream continue throughout the novel, culminating in the novel's fifteenth episode, wherein some characters also take on the guise of Hārūn.
Harun al-Rashid is celebrated in a 1923 poem byW. B. Yeats, "The Gift of Harun al-Rashid".[78][79]
A story of one of Harun's wanderings provides the climax to the narrative game of titles at the end ofItalo Calvino'sIf on a winter's night a traveler (1979). In Calvino's story, Harun wanders at night, only to be drawn into a conspiracy in which he is selected to assassinate the Caliph Harun-al-Rashid.
In theSten science fiction novels byAllan Cole andChris Bunch, the character of the Eternal Emperor uses the name "H. E. Raschid" when incognito; this is confirmed, in the final book of the series, as a reference to the character fromBurton's translation ofThe Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night.
The movieThe Golden Blade (1952), starringRock Hudson andPiper Laurie depicts the adventures ofHarun who uses amagic sword to free afairy-tale Baghdad from Jafar, the evil usurper of the throne. After he finally wins the hand of princess Khairuzan she awards him the title Al-Rashid ("the righteous").
Thecomic bookThe Sandman features a story (issue 50, "Ramadan") set in the world of theOne Thousand and One Nights, with Hārūn ar-Rashīd as the protagonist. It highlights his historical and mythical role as well as his discussion of the transitory nature of power. The story is included in the collectionThe Sandman: Fables and Reflections.
InQuest for Glory II, the sultan who adoptsthe Hero as his son is named Hārūn ar-Rashīd. He is often seen prophesying on the streets of Shapeir as The Poet Omar.
Harun al-Rashid appears as the leader of Arabia in the video gameCivilization V.[80]
InThe Master and Margarita, by novelistMikhail Bulgakov, Harun al-Rashid is referenced by the character Korovyev in which he warns a door man not to judge him "by [his] suit", and to reference the story of "the famous caliph, Harun al-Rashid".
In the 1924 filmWaxworks, a poet is hired by a wax museum proprietor to write back-stories for three wax models. Among these wax models is Harun al-Rashid, played byEmil Jannings.
In the 2006 novelVariable Star byRobert Heinlein andSpider Robinson, chapter 1 is prefaced with a quotation from Alfred, Lord Tennyson's "Recollections of the Arabian Nights" regarding "good Harun Alrashid", the relevance of which becomes apparent in chapter 2 when one character relates stories (probably apocryphal and presumably drawn from Tennyson) of Harun al-Rahsid to another character in order to use them as an analogy.
Haroun al-Rashid has a character page in the video gameCrusader Kings II, and it is possible to play as his descendants of theAbbasid dynasty.
Harun al-Rashid appears in the children's comic bookMampato, in the stories "Bromiznar de Bagdad" and "Ábrete Sesamo", by the Chilean authorThemo Lobos. In this story, al-Rashid is shown at first as lazy and indolent, but after a series of adventures he decides to take the leading role against an evil vizier and help the main character, Mampato.
The Syrian television seriesHarun Al-Rashid (2018), starringKosai Khauli,Karis Bashar, andYasser Al-Masri focuses on Harun and his relation with his brother Caliph Al-Hadi, and that preceded Harun's ascent to the Caliphate. It also focuses on his relations with his elder sons and nomination of Al-Amin and Al-Ma'mun as heir.
^Al-Qasim was thethird heir, however, he was removed by his elder brothers
^Al-Ma'mun had made no official provisions for his succession during his reign. According to the account ofal-Tabari, on his deathbed al-Ma'mun dictated a letter nominating his brotherAbu Ishaq Muhammad as his successor, He was acclaimed as caliph on 9 August, with the regnal title of al-Mu'tasim bi'llah
Abbott, Nabia (1946).Two Queens of Baghdad: Mother and Wife of Hārūn Al Rashīd. University of Chicago Press.ISBN978-0-86356-031-6.
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