Thehartebeest (/ˈhɑːrtəˌbiːst/;[3]Alcelaphus buselaphus), also known askongoni orkaama, is anAfricanantelope. It is theonly member of the genusAlcelaphus. Eightsubspecies have been described, including two sometimes considered to be independent species. A large antelope, the hartebeest stands just over 1 m (3 ft 3 in) at the shoulder, and has a typical head-and-body length of 200 to 250 cm (79 to 98 in). The weight ranges from 100 to 200 kg (220 to 440 lb). It has a particularly elongated forehead and oddly-shapedhorns, a short neck, and pointed ears. Its legs, which often have black markings, are unusually long. Thecoat is generally short and shiny. Coat colour varies by the subspecies, from the sandy brown of thewestern hartebeest to the chocolate brown of theSwayne's hartebeest.Both sexes of all subspecies have horns, with those of females being more slender. Horns can reach lengths of 45–70 cm (18–28 in). Apart from its long face, the large chest and the sharply sloping back differentiate the hartebeest from other antelopes. A conspicuous hump over the shoulders is due to the long dorsalprocesses of the vertebrae in this region.[4]
Gregarious animals, hartebeest formherds of 20 to 300 individuals. They are very alert and non-aggressive. They are primarilygrazers, with their diets consisting mainly of grasses. Mating in hartebeest takes place throughout the year with one or two peaks, and depends upon the subspecies and local factors. Both males and females reachsexual maturity at one to two years of age.Gestation is eight to nine months long, after which a single calf is born. Births usually peak in the dry season. The lifespan is 12 to 15 years.
Inhabiting drysavannas and wooded grasslands, hartebeest often move to more arid places after rainfall. They have been reported from altitudes onMount Kenya up to 4,000 m (13,000 ft). The hartebeest was formerly widespread in Africa, but populations have undergone a drastic decline due tohabitat destruction, hunting, human settlement, and competition with livestock for food. Each of the eight subspecies of the hartebeest has a different conservation status. TheBubal hartebeest was declaredextinct by theInternational Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 1994. While the populations of the red hartebeest are on the rise, those of theTora hartebeest, alreadyCritically Endangered, are falling. The hartebeest is extinct in Algeria, Egypt, Lesotho, Libya, Morocco, Somalia, and Tunisia; but has beenintroduced intoEswatini andZimbabwe. It is a populargame animal due to its highly regarded meat.
The vernacular name "hartebeest" may have originated from the obsoleteDutch wordhertebeest,[5] literallydeer beast,[3] based on the resemblance (to earlyDutch settlers) of the antelope todeer.[6] The first use of the word "hartebeest" in South African literature was in Dutch colonial administratorJan van Riebeeck's journalDaghregister in 1660. He wrote: "Meester Pieter ein hart-beest geschooten hadde (Master Pieter [van Meerhoff] had shot one hartebeest)".[7] Another name for the hartebeest iskongoni,[8] aSwahili word.[9]Kongoni is often used to refer in particular to one of itssubspecies,Coke's hartebeest.[10]
Thescientific name of the hartebeest isAlcelaphus buselaphus. Firstdescribed by German zoologistPeter Simon Pallas in 1766, it is classified in the genusAlcelaphus and placed in the familyBovidae.[2] In 1979, palaeontologistElisabeth Vrba supportedSigmoceros as a separate genus forLichtenstein's hartebeest, a kind of hartebeest, as she assumed it was related toConnochaetes (wildebeest).[11][12] She had analysed the skull characters of living and extinct species of antelope to make acladogram, and argued that a wide skull linked Lichtenstein's hartebeest withConnochaetes.[13] However, this finding was not replicated by Alan W. Gentry of theNatural History Museum, who classified it as an independent species ofAlcelaphus.[14] Zoologists such asJonathan Kingdon andTheodor Haltenorth considered it to be a subspecies ofA. buselaphus.[2] Vrba dissolved the new genus in 1997 after reconsideration.[15] AnMtDNA analysis could find no evidence to support a separate genus for Lichtenstein's hartebeest. It also showed the tribeAlcelaphini to bemonophyletic, and discovered close affinity between theAlcelaphus and thesassabies (genusDamaliscus)—both genetically and morphologically.[16]
Hartebeest subspecies: bubal hartebeest (centre); (clockwise from top-left corner) red hartebeest, Lelwel hartebeest, Swayne's hartebeest, western hartebeest, Neumann's hartebeest, Lichtenstein's hartebeest, Coke's hartebeest and tora hartebeest, fromGreat and Small Game of Africa
Eight subspecies are identified, of which two –A. b. caama andA. b. lichtensteinii – have been considered to be independent species. However, a 1999 genetic study by P. Arctander of theUniversity of Copenhagen and colleagues, which sampled thecontrol region of themitochondrial DNA, found that these two formed a clade withinA. buselaphus, and that recognising these as species would renderA. buselaphusparaphyletic (an unnatural grouping). The same study foundA. b. major to be the most divergent, having branched off before the lineage split to give a combinedcaama/lichtensteinii lineage and another that gave rise to the remainingextant subspecies.[17] Conversely a 2001phylogenetic study, based onD–loop andcytochrome b analysis by Øystein Flagstad (of the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research,Trondheim) and colleagues, found that the southern lineage ofA. b. caama andA. lichtensteinii diverged earliest.[12] Analysis of skull structure supports partition into three major divisions:A. b. buselaphus division (nominate, also includingA. b. major division),A. b. tora division (also includingA. b. cokii andA. b. swaynei) andA. b. lelwel division.[2] Another analysis of cytochrome b and D-loop sequence data shows a notableaffinity between theA. b. lelwel andA. b. tora divisions.[18]
The eight subspecies, including the two controversial ones, are:[1][19]
A. b. caama(Saint-Hilaire, 1803) : Known as thered hartebeest or Cape hartebeest. Formerly occurred in southernAngola; northern and eastern savannahs ofNamibia; central, southern and southwesternBotswana;Northern Cape,Eastern Cape,Western Cape,Free State,Northwest andGauteng provinces and westernKwaZulu-Natal of South Africa. Presently has been eliminated from all these areas except Northern Cape, central and southwestern Botswana and Namibia. Major re-introductions have taken place in these countries.[20] The population of this hartebeest is on the rise.[23]
A. b. lelwel(Heuglin, 1877) : Known as theLelwel hartebeest. Formerly found in northern and northeasternDemocratic Republic of the Congo; southeastern and southwesternSudan; and the northwestern extreme ofTanzania.[20] Drastic population decrease since the 1980s has confined most individuals to protected areas inside and outside its range.[24]
A. b. swaynei(Sclater, 1892) : Known asSwayne's hartebeest. Restricted to the southernRift Valley in Ethiopia, confirmed and listed as an endemic species. It formerly occurred throughout the Rift Valley, and its range extended eastward into northwesternSomalia. It disappeared from Somalia by 1930 due to the outcome of the rinderpest epidemic, illegal poaching, and livestock overgrazing.[20] Confirmed as endangered species, its populations are low with at least 1500 individuals, and on verge of population decline.[27][28]
A. b. toraGray, 1873 : Known as thetora hartebeest. Formerly occurred in northwestern Ethiopia and western and southwesternEritrea.[29] Its present status is unclear, though locals have reported small numbers from these areas.[20]
In 2000, a study scrutinised two major populations of the Swayne's hartebeest, from theSenkele Wildlife Sanctuary and theNechisar National Park, for mitochondrial (D-loop) and nuclear (microsatellite) variability in an attempt to estimate the levels ofgenetic variation between the populations and within the subspecies. The results showed a remarkable differentiation between the two populations; that from the Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary showed moregenetic diversity than the one from the Nechisar National Park. Another revelation was that thetranslocation of the individuals from the Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary in 1974 had not made a significant contribution to the gene pool of the Nechisar National Park. Additionally, the Swayne hartebeest populations were compared with a large red hartebeest population, and both subspecies were found to have a high degree of genetic variation. The study advocatedin situ conservation of the Swayne's hartebeest and a renewed attempt at its translocation in order to conserve genetic diversity and increase its population in both the protected areas.[18]
Thediploid number of chromosomes in the hartebeest is 40. Hybrids are usually reported from areas where ranges of two subspecies overlap.[8] Hybrids between the Lelwel and Tora hartebeest have been reported in eastern Sudan and western Ethiopia, in a stretch southward from theBlue Nile to about 9° N latitude.[30] A study proved a male hybrid of the red hartebeest and theblesbok (Damaliscus pygargus) to besterile. Sterility of the hybrid was attributed to difficulties insegregation duringmeiosis, indicated byazoospermia and a low number ofgerm cells in itsseminiferous tubules.[31]
Jackson's hartebeest
There are three well-defined hybrids between the subspecies:
Alcelaphus lelwel x cokii: Known as the Kenya Highland hartebeest or the Laikipia hartebeest. It is a cross between the Lelwel and Coke's hartebeest.[32] This hybrid is lighter in colour and larger than Coke's hartebeest. It is a light buff with reddish-tawny upper parts, and the head is longer than in Coke's hartebeest. Both sexes have horns, which are heavier as well as longer than those of the parents. It was formerly distributed throughout the western Kenyan highlands, betweenLake Victoria andMount Kenya, but is now believed to be restricted to the Lambwe Valley (south-west Kenya) andLaikipia and nearby regions of west-central Kenya.[33][34]
The Jackson's hartebeest does not have a clear taxonomic status. Like the form above, it is regarded as a hybrid between the Lelwel and Coke's hartebeest, and has a similar distribution. TheAfrican Antelope Database (1998) treats it as synonymous to the Lelwel hartebeest.[20] From Lake Baringo to Mount Kenya, the Jackson's hartebeest significantly resembles the Lelwel hartebeest, whereas from Lake Victoria to the southern part of the Rift Valley it tends to be more like the Coke's hartebeest.[35]
Alcelaphus lelwel x swaynei : Also known as the Neumann's hartebeest, named after traveller and hunterArthur Henry Neumann.[35] This is considered to be a cross between the Lelwel hartebeest and Swayne's hartebeest.[32] The face is longer than that of the Swayne's hartebeest. The colour of the coat is a golden brown, paler towards the underparts. The chin has a hint of black and the tail ends in a black tuft. Both sexes have longer horns than the Swayne's hartebeest. The horns grow in a wide "V" shape, unlike the wide bracket shape of Swayne's hartebeest and the narrow "V" of Lelwel hartebeest, curving backward and slightly inward. It occurs in Ethiopia, in a small area to the east ofOmo River and north ofLake Turkana, stretching north-east ofLake Chew Bahir to nearLake Chamo.[36]
The genusAlcelaphus emerged about 4.4 million years ago in aclade whose other members wereDamalops,Numidocapra,Rabaticeras,Megalotragus,Oreonagor, andConnochaetes. An analysis usingphylogeographic patterns within hartebeest populations suggested a possible origin ofAlcelaphus in eastern Africa.[37]Alcelaphus quicklyradiated across the African savannas, replacing several previous forms (such as a relative of thehirola). Flagstad and colleagues showed an early split in the hartebeest populations into two distinct lineages around 0.5 million years ago – one to the north and the other to the south of the equator. The northern lineage further diverged into eastern and western lineages, nearly 0.4 million years ago, most probably as a result of the expandingcentral African rainforest belt and subsequent contraction ofsavanna habitats during a period of global warming. The eastern lineage gave rise to the Coke's, Swayne's, Tora and Lelwel hartebeest; and from the western lineage evolved the Bubal and western hartebeest. The southern lineage gave rise to Lichtenstein's and red hartebeest. These two taxa are phylogenetically close, having diverged only 0.2 million years ago. The study concluded that these major events throughout the hartebeest's evolution are strongly related to climatic factors, and that there had been successive bursts of radiation from a more permanent population—arefugium—in eastern Africa; this could be vital to understanding the evolutionary history of not only the hartebeest but also other mammals of the African savanna.[12]
The earliest fossil record dates back to nearly 0.7 million years ago.[8] Fossils of thered hartebeest have been found in Elandsfontein,Cornelia (Free State) andFlorisbad inSouth Africa, as well as inKabwe inZambia.[38] InIsrael, hartebeest remains have been found in northernNegev,Shephelah,Sharon Plain andTel Lachish. This population of the hartebeest was originally limited to the open country of the southernmost regions of the southernLevant. It was probably hunted in Egypt, which affected the numbers in the Levant, and disconnected it from its main population in Africa.[39]
A red hartebeest showing the dark face, black tail, white rump and V-shaped horns
A large antelope with a particularly elongated forehead and oddly shaped horns, the hartebeest stands just over 1 m (3 ft 3 in) at the shoulder, and has a typical head-and-body length of 200 to 250 cm (79 to 98 in). The weight ranges from 100 to 200 kg (220 to 440 lb). The tail, 40 to 60 cm (16 to 24 in) long, ends in a black tuft.[40] The other distinctive features of the hartebeest are its long legs (often with black markings), short neck, and pointed ears.[41] A study correlated the size of hartebeest species tohabitat productivity and rainfall.[42] The western hartebeest is the largest subspecies, and has a characteristic white line between the eyes.[43] The red hartebeest is also large, with a black forehead and a contrasting light band between the eyes.[44] The large Lelwel hartebeest has dark stripes on the front of its legs.[30] Coke's hartebeest is moderately large, with a shorter forehead and longer tail in comparison to the other subspecies.[45] Lichtenstein's hartebeest is smaller, with dark stripes on the front of the legs, as in the Lelwel hartebeest.[46] The Swayne's hartebeest is smaller than the Tora hartebeest, but both have a shorter forehead and similar appearance.[47]
Generally short and shiny, the coat varies in colour according to subspecies.[48] The western hartebeest is a pale sandy-brown, but the front of the legs are darker.[43] The red hartebeest is a reddish-brown, with a dark face. Black markings can be observed on the chin, the back of the neck, shoulders, hips and legs; these are in sharp contrast with the broad white patches that mark its flanks and lower rump.[44][49] The Lelwel hartebeest is a reddish tan.[30] Coke's hartebeest is reddish to tawny in the upper parts, but has relatively lighter legs and rump.[45] Lichtenstein's hartebeest is reddish brown, though the flanks are a lighter tan and the rump whitish.[46] The Tora hartebeest is a dark reddish brown in the upper part of the body, the face, the forelegs and the rump, but the hindlegs and the underbelly are a yellowish white.[29][50] The Swayne's hartebeest is a rich chocolate brown with fine spots of white that are actually the white tips of its hairs. Its face is black save for the chocolate band below the eyes. The shoulders and upper part of the legs are black.[47] Fine textured, the body hair of the hartebeest is about 25 mm (1 in) long.[11] The hartebeest haspreorbital glands (glands near the eyes) with a central duct, that secrete a dark sticky fluid in Coke's and Lichtenstein's hartebeest, and a colourless fluid in the Lelwel hartebeest.[48]
A close head-shot of a red hartebeest
Both sexes of all subspecies have horns, with those of females being more slender. Horns can reach lengths of 45–70 cm (18–28 in); the maximum horn length is 74.9 cm (29+1⁄2 in), recorded from a Namibian red hartebeest.[40] The horns of the western hartebeest are thick and appear U-shaped from the front and Z-shaped from the sides, growing backward at first and then forward, ending with a sharp backward turn.[43] The horns of the red and the Lelwel hartebeest are similar to those of the western hartebeest, but appear V-shaped when viewed from the front.[30][44] The Lichtenstein's hartebeest has thick parallel ringed horns, with a flat base. Its horns are shorter than those of other subspecies, curving upward then sharply forward, followed by an inward turn at an angle of about 45° and a final backward turn.[46] The horns of Swayne's hartebeest are thin and shaped like parentheses, curving upward and then backward.[47] The horns of the Tora hartebeest are particularly thin and spread out sideways, diverging more than in any other subspecies.[50]
Apart from its long face, the large chest and the sharply sloping back differentiate the hartebeest from other antelopes.[5] The hartebeest shares several physical traits with the sassabies (genusDamaliscus), such as an elongated and narrow face, the shape of the horns, thepelage texture and colour, and the terminal tuft of the tail. Thewildebeest have more specialised skull and horn features than the hartebeest.[48] The hartebeest exhibitssexual dimorphism, but only slightly, as both sexes bear horns and have similar body masses. The degree of sexual dimorphism varies by subspecies. Males are 8% heavier than females in Swayne's and Lichtenstein's hartebeest, and 23% heavier in the red hartebeest. In one study, the highest dimorphism was found in skull weight.[51] Another study concluded that the length of the breeding season is a good predictor of dimorphism in pedicle (the bony structures from which the horns grow) height and skull weight, and the best predictor of the horn circumference.[52]
Active mainly during daytime, the hartebeest grazes in the early morning and late afternoon, and rests in shade around noon.Gregarious, the species forms herds of up to 300 individuals. Larger numbers gather in places with abundant grass. In 1963, a congregation of 10,000 animals was recorded on the plains near Sekoma Pan in Botswana.[48] However, moving herds are not so cohesive, and tend to disperse frequently. The members of a herd can be divided into four groups:territorial adult males, non-territorial adult males, young males, and the females with their young. The females form groups of five to 12 animals, with four generations of young in the group. Females fight for dominance over the herd.[40] Sparring between males and females is common.[8] At three or four years of age, the males can attempt to take over a territory and its female members. A resident male defends his territory and will fight if provoked.[51] The male marks the border of his territory through defecation.[40]
A herd of hartebeest
Hartebeest are remarkably alert and cautious animals with highly developedbrains.[53][54] Generally calm in nature, hartebeest can be ferocious when provoked. While feeding, one individual stays on the lookout for danger, often standing on atermite mound to see farther. At times of danger, the whole herd flees in a single file after an individual suddenly starts off.[40] Adult hartebeest are preyed upon by lions,leopards,hyenas andwild dogs;cheetahs andjackals targetjuveniles.[40] Crocodiles may also prey on hartebeest.[55]
The thin long legs of the hartebeest provide for a quick escape in an open habitat; if attacked, the formidable horns are used to ward off the predator. The elevated position of the eyes enables the hartebeest to inspect its surroundings continuously even as it is grazing. The muzzle has evolved so as to derive maximum nutrition from even a frugal diet.[8] The horns are also used during fights among males fordominance in the breeding season;[52] the clash of the horns is loud enough that it can be heard from hundreds of metres away.[8] The beginning of a fight is marked with a series of head movements and stances, as well as depositing droppings on dung piles. The opponents drop onto their knees and, after giving a hammer-like blow, begin wrestling, their horns interlocking. One attempts to fling the head of the other to one side to stab the neck and shoulders with his horns.[51] Fights are rarely serious, but can be fatal if they are.[48]
Like the sassabies, hartebeest produce quiet quacking and grunting sounds. Juveniles tend to be more vocal than adults, and produce a quacking call when alarmed or pursued.[40] The hartebeest uses defecation as anolfactory and visual display.[48] Herds are generally sedentary, and tend to migrate only under adverse conditions such as natural calamities.[56] The hartebeest is the least migratory in thetribe Alcelaphini (which also includes wildebeest and sassabies), and also consumes the least amount of water and has the lowestmetabolic rate among the members of the tribe.[48]
Hartebeest are primarily grazers, and their diets consist mostly of grasses.[65] A study in theNazinga Game Ranch inBurkina Faso found that the hartebeest's skull structure eased the acquisition and chewing of highly fibrous foods.[66] The hartebeest has much lower food intake than the other members of Alcelaphini. The long thinmuzzle of the hartebeest assists in feeding on leaf blades of short grasses and nibbling off leaf sheaths from grass stems. In addition to this, it can derive nutritious food even from tall senile grasses. These adaptations of the hartebeest enable the animal to feed well even in the dry season, which is usually a difficult period for grazers.[8] For instance, in comparison with theroan antelope, the hartebeest is better at procuring and chewing the scarce regrowth ofperennial grasses at times when forage is least available.[66] These unique abilities could have allowed the hartebeest to prevail over other animals millions of years ago, leading to its successful radiation across Africa.[8]
Grasses generally comprise at least 80 per cent of the hartebeest's diet, but they account for over 95 per cent of their food in the wet season, October to May.Jasminum kerstingii is part of the hartebeest's diet at the start of the rainy season. Between seasons, they mainly feed on theculms of grasses.[66] A study found that the hartebeest is able to digest a higher proportion of food than the topi and the wildebeest.[67] In areas with scarce water, it can survive on melons, roots, and tubers.[48]
In a study of grass selectivity among the wildebeest,zebra, and the Coke's hartebeest, the hartebeest showed the highest selectivity. All animals preferredThemeda triandra overPennisetum mezianum andDigitaria macroblephara. More grass species were eaten in the dry season than in the wet season.[68]
Mating in hartebeest takes place throughout the year, with one or two peaks that can be influenced by the availability of food.[65] Both males and females reachsexual maturity at one to two years of age. Reproduction varies by the subspecies and local factors.[11] Mating takes place in the territories defended by a single male, mostly in open areas.[65] The males may fight fiercely for dominance,[51] following which the dominant male smells the female's genitalia, and follows her if she is inoestrus. Sometimes a female in oestrus holds out her tail slightly to signal her receptivity,[48] and the male tries to block the female's way. She may eventually stand still and allow the male to mount her. Copulation is brief and is often repeated, sometimes twice or more in a minute.[48] Any intruder at this time is chased away.[40] In large herds, females often mate with several males.[48]
Gestation is eight to nine months long, after which a single calf weighing about 9 kg (20 lb) is born. Births usually peak in the dry season, and take place in thickets – unlike the wildebeest, which give birth in groups on the plains.[48] Though calves can move about on their own shortly after birth, they usually lie in the open in close proximity of their mothers.[32] The calf is weaned at four months,[32] but young males stay with their mothers for two and a half years, longer than in other Alcelaphini.[48] Often the mortality rate of male juveniles is high, as they have to face the aggression of territorial adult males and are also deprived of good forage by them.[40] The lifespan is 12 to 15 years.[65]
Hartebeest inhabit dry savannas, open plains and wooded grasslands,[11] often moving into more arid places after rainfall. They are more tolerant of wooded areas than other Alcelaphini, and are often found on the edge of woodlands.[65] They have been reported from altitudes onMount Kenya up to 4,000 m (13,000 ft).[1] The red hartebeest is known to move across large areas, and females roam home ranges of over 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi), with male territories 200 km2 (77 sq mi) in size.[69] Females in theNairobi National Park (Kenya) have individual home ranges stretching over3.7–5.5 km2 (1+3⁄8–2+1⁄8 sq mi), which are not particularly associated with any one female group. Average female home ranges are large enough to include 20 to 30 male territories.[41]
Coke's hartebeest in Serengeti National Park, TanzaniaRed hartebeest in Etosha National Park, NamibiaWestern hartebeest in Pendjari National Park, Benin
Each hartebeest subspecies is listed under a different conservation status by theInternational Union for Conservation of Nature. The species as a whole is classified asLeast Concern by the IUCN.[1] The hartebeest is extinct in Algeria, Egypt, Lesotho, Libya, Morocco, Somalia, and Tunisia.[1]
TheBubal hartebeest has been declaredextinct since 1994.[21] German explorerHeinrich Barth, in his works of 1857, cites firearms and European intrusion among the reasons for the decrease in its numbers.[70] It was extinct inTunisia by the late 19th century.[71] The last individual was shot inMissour (Algeria) in 1925.[72]
Coke's hartebeest is listed as Least Concern. This species has been greatly affected by habitat destruction, and about 42,000 Coke's hartebeest occur today inMara,Serengeti National Park, andTarangire National Park in Tanzania andTsavo East National Park in Kenya. The population is decreasing, and 70% of the population lives in protected areas.[73]
Lichtenstein's hartebeest is listed as Least Concern, and occurs in protected areas such as theSelous Game Reserve and in the wild in southern and western Tanzania and Zambia.[26]
Thered hartebeest is listed as Least Concern. It is the most widespread, with increasing numbers after its reintroduction into protected and private areas. However, it has been extinct inLesotho since the twentieth century.[20] Its population is estimated to be over 130,000 (as of 2008),[23] mostly in southern Africa.[69] In Namibia, the largest population occurs in theEtosha National Park. A reintroduced population is flourishing in theMalolotja Nature Reserve (Eswatini), outside its range. However, numbers have seen a sharp fall in southwestern Botswana.[20]
TheTora hartebeest is listed asCritically Endangered; the IUCN has ascertained that fewer than 250 mature individuals survive as of 2008. It is possibly extinct due to excessive hunting andagricultural expansion, but may still exist in smaller numbers in Eritrea and Ethiopia.[74] There have been unconfirmed reports of sightings by locals of the Tora hartebeest southeast of theDinder National Park, from where it had disappeared before 1960.[20]
Swayne's hartebeest is listed asEndangered, and is close to beingCritically Endangered. The total population in 2008 was less than 600, of which the mature specimens numbered 250. But in 2021, the population has slowly increased from 600 to 1528 individuals. It is confined to four major protected areas: theSenkele Wildlife Sanctuary,Nechisar National Park,Awash National Park andMaze National Park.[75] The hartebeest in Senkele have to compete with the livestock of theOromo people.[27] A study in the Nechisar National Park during 2009 and 2010 found a considerable increase in the livestock of the Oromos (49.9% and 56.5% increase during 2006 and 2010, respectively), illegal resource exploitation, and habitat loss as major threats to the Swayne's hartebeest populations there.[76]
Hartebeest are populargame andtrophy animals as they are prominently visible and hence easy to hunt.[40][65] Pictorial as well asepigraphic evidence fromEgypt suggests that in theUpper Palaeolithic age, Egyptians hunted hartebeest and domesticated them. The hartebeest was a prominent source of meat,[78] but its economic significance was lower than that of gazelles and other desert species.[50] However, from the beginning of theNeolithic age, hunting became less common and consequently the remains of the hartebeest from this period in ancient Egypt, where it is now extinct, are rare.[78]
In a study on the effect of place and sex on carcass characteristics, the average carcass weight of the male red hartebeest was79.3 kg (174+3⁄4 lb) and that of females was 56 kg (123 lb). The meat of the animals from Qua-Qua region had the highestlipid content—1.3 g (20 gr) per100 g (3+1⁄2 oz) of meat. Negligible differences were found in the concentrations of individualfatty acids,amino acids, andminerals. The study considered hartebeest meat to be healthy, as the ratio ofpolyunsaturated tosaturated fatty acids was 0.78, slightly more than the recommended 0.7.[79]
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