Theharp is astringed musical instrument that has individualstrings running at an angle to itssoundboard; the strings are plucked with the fingers. Harps can be played in either a seated or standing position. Most commonly, harps are made of wood and are triangular in shape. Some have multiple rows of strings and pedal attachments.
Ancient depictions of harps were recorded inMesopotamia (nowIraq),Persia (nowIran) andEgypt, and later inIndia andChina. Bymedieval times harps had spread across Europe. Harps are found across the Americas; in some regions, they are used in popularfolk music traditions. Distinct designs also emerged from the African continent. Harps have symbolic political traditions and are often used in logos, including inIreland.
Historically, strings were made ofsinew (animal tendons).[2][3] Other materials have includedgut (animal intestines),[4] plant fiber,[4] braided hemp,[5] cotton cord,[6] silk,[7] nylon,[8] and wire.[9]
The Harps of Chogha MishIran are considered to be the world's oldest surviving stringed instruments,3300–3100 BCE[11]
Harps have been known since antiquity in Asia, Africa, and Europe, dating back at least as early as 3000 BCE. The instrument had great popularity in Europe during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, where it evolved into a wide range of variants with new technologies, and was disseminated to Europe's colonies, finding particular popularity in Latin America.
Although some ancient members of the harp family died out in the Near East and South Asia, descendants of early harps are still played in Myanmar and parts of Africa; other variants defunct in Europe and Asia have been used byfolk musicians in the modern era.
The earliest harps and lyres were found inSumer, c. 2500 BCE,[12] with several harps excavated from burial pits and royal tombs inUr.[13][14] The oldest depictions of harps without a forepillar can be seen in the wall paintings ofancient Egyptian tombs in theNile Valley, which date from the mid 3rd millennium BCE.[15] These murals show anarched harp, an instrument that closely resembles the hunter's bow, without the pillar that we find in modern harps.[16]TheChang flourished in Persia in many forms from its introduction, about4000 BCE, until the 17th century CE.
Around1900 BCE, arched harps in the Iraq-Iran region were replaced byangular harps with vertical or horizontal sound boxes.[17] The Kinnor (Hebrew:כִּנּוֹרkīnnōr) was anancient Israelite musical instrument in theyoke lutes family, the first one to be mentioned in theHebrew Bible.Its exact identification is unclear, but in the modern day it is generally translated as "harp" or "lyre",[18]: 440 and associated with a type oflyre depicted in Israelite imagery, particularly theBar Kokhba coins.[18] It has been referred to as the "national instrument" of the Jewish people,[19] and modernluthiers have created reproduction lyres of the kinnor based on this imagery.
By the start of the Common Era, "robust, vertical, angular harps", which had become predominant in the Hellenistic world, were cherished in theSasanian court. In the last century of theSasanian period, angular harps were redesigned to make them as light as possible ("light, vertical, angular harps"); while they became more elegant, they lost their structural rigidity. At the height of thePersian tradition of illustrated book production (1300–1600 CE), such light harps were still frequently depicted, although their use as musical instruments was reaching its end.[20]
Mesolithic era paintings fromBhimbetka show harp playing. Anarched harp made of wooden brackets and metal strings is depicted on anIndus seal.[22] The works of the TamilSangam literature describe the harp and its variants, as early as200 BCE.[23] Variants were described, ranging from 14 to 17 strings, and the instrument was used by wandering minstrels for accompaniment.[24] Iconographic evidence of the yaal appears in temple statues dated as early as600 BCE.[25] One of the Sangam works, theKallaadam recounts how the firstyaaḻ harp was inspired by an archer's bow, when he heard the musical sound of its twang.[citation needed]
Another early South Asian harp was theancient veena, not to be confused with the modern Indianveena which is a type of lute. Some Samudragupta gold coins show of themid-4th century CE show (presumably) the kingSamudragupta himself playing the instrument.[26] The ancient veena survives today in Burma, in the form of thesaung harp still played there.[27]
The harp was popular in ancient China and neighboring regions, though harps are largely extinct in East Asia in the modern day. The Chinesekonghou harp is documented as early as theSpring and Autumn period(770–476 BCE), and became extinct during theMing dynasty(1368–1644 CE).[28] A similar harp, theGonghu was played in ancient Korea, documented as early as theGoguryeo period(37 BCE–686 CE).[29]
The harper on theDupplin Cross, Scotland,c. 800 CEIndividual sheet music for a seventeenth century baroque harp[30]
While the angle and bow harps held popularity elsewhere, European harps favored the "pillar", a third structural member to support the far ends of the arch and soundbox.[31][32]: 290 A harp with a triangular three-part frame is depicted on 8th-centuryPictish stones in Scotland[31][32]: 290 and in manuscripts (e.g. theUtrecht Psalter) from early 9th-century France.[32] The curve of the harp's neck is a result of the proportional shortening of the basic triangular form to keep the strings equidistant; if the strings were proportionately distant they would be farther apart.
A medieval European harp (theWartburg harp) with buzzing bray pins
As European harps evolved to play more complex music, a key consideration was some way to facilitate the quick changing of a string's pitch to be able to play more chromatic notes. By theBaroque period in Italy and Spain, more strings were added to allow for chromatic notes in more complex harps. In Germany in the second half of the 17th century, diatonic single-row harps were fitted with manually turned hooks that fretted individual strings to raise their pitch by a half step. In the 18th century, a link mechanism was developed connecting these hooks with pedals, leading to the invention of the single-action pedal harp.
The first primitive form of pedal harps was developed in the Tyrol region of Austria. Jacob Hochbrucker was the next to design an improved pedal mechanism around 1720, followed in succession by Krumpholtz, Naderman, and the Erard company, who came up with the double mechanism, in which a second row of hooks was installed along the neck, capable of raising the pitch of a string by either one or two half steps. While one course of European harps led to greater complexity, resulting largely in the modern pedal harp, other harping traditions maintained simpler diatonic instruments which survived and evolved into modern traditions.
In the Americas, harps are widely but sparsely distributed, except in certain regions where the harp traditions are very strong. Such areas includeMexico, theAndean region,Venezuela, andParaguay. They are derived from theBaroque harps that were brought from Spain during the colonial period.[33] Detailed features vary from place to place.
Paraguayan harp
TheParaguayan harp is that country'snational instrument, and has gained a worldwide reputation, with international influences alongside folk traditions. They have around 36 strings, are played with fingernails, and with a narrowing spacing and lower tension than modern Western harps, and have a wide and deep soundbox that tapers to the top.[34]
The harp is also found in Argentina,[35] though in Uruguay it was largely displaced in religious music by the organ by the end of the 18th century.[36] The harp is historically found in Brazil, but mostly in the south of the country.[37]
Andean harp
TheAndean harp (Spanish/Quechua:arpa), also known as the Peruvian harp, or indigenous harp, is widespread among peoples living in the highlands of theAndes:Quechua andAymara, mainly inPeru, and also inBolivia andEcuador. It is relatively large, with a significantly increased volume of the resonator box, which gives basses a special richness. It usually accompanies love dances and songs, such ashuayno.[38] One of the most famous performers on the Andean harp wasJuan Cayambe (Pimampiro Canton,Imbabura Province, Ecuador[39])
Thearpa jarocha is typically played while standing. In southern Mexico (Chiapas), there is a very different indigenous style of harp music.[40]
The harp arrived in Venezuela with Spanish colonists.[41] There are two distinct traditions: thearpa llanera ('harp of theLlanos’, or plains) and thearpa central ('of the central area').[42] By the 2020s, three types of harps are typically found:[41]
the traditionalllanera harp, made ofCedar wood and has 32 strings, originally of thegut, but in modern times are of nylon. It is used to accompany both dancers and singers playingjoropo music, a traditional form of Venezuelan music, also known as llanera music.[41]
thearpa central (also known asarpa mirandina 'ofMiranda State’, andarpa tuyera 'of theTuy Valleys’) is strung with wire in the higher register.[42]
A number of types of harps are found in Africa, predominantly not of the three-sided frame-harp type found in Europe. A number of these, referred to generically asAfrican harps, are bow or angle harps, which lack forepillars joining the neck to the body.
A number of harp-like instruments in Africa are not easily classified with European categories. Instruments like the West Africankora and Mauritanianardin are sometimes labeled as "spike harp", "bridge harp", orharp lute since their construction includes a bridge which holds the strings laterally, vice vertically entering the soundboard.[43]
InArmenia, stringed instruments such as the lyre have been use since ancient times; the lyre was documented in artwork on a silver goblet from Karashamb, Armenia in the 22nd-21st centuries B.C.[44] The horizontal harp potentially dates back between 700 BC (when it appeared in Assyrian artwork) and the 5th-4th centuries BC. (the date for examples dug up in theAltai Mountains, and then inXinjiang in northwestern China).[45][46] The theory is that the instrument spread between the two locations (which would include Armenia), helped by such tribes as the Scythians.[46]
Common usages included weddings and funerals.[47] The "horn beaker with a feast scene", found inside a vessel inNor Aresh and now preserved in theErebuni Fortress, depicts a lyre.[48] Information about early medieval Armenian musical instruments has been found in Armenian translations of the Bible.[49][50][51] In the past, the stringed instruments such as lyres and harps were played in the royal residences, in the royal recreation rooms.[citation needed] Sometimes not only the royal musicians, but the kings themselves were depicted in artwork playing the instrument.
Artwork in the gallery below shows a variety of Eastern and Western styles as well as some that could be from either.
Circa 4th century B.C. Horn beaker found at Nor Aresh district near the Erebuni Fortress. Contains feast scene of a man and three women. One woman has a lyre.Erebuni Museum
Circa 4th century B.C. Woman withlyre from horn beaker, found in excavation at the Nor Aresh district.Erebuni Museum.
An Armenian royal harpist. Style similar to Chinesekonghou and Persianchang.
The harp largely became extinct in East Asia by the 17th century; around the year 1000, harps like thevajra began to replace prior[clarification needed] harps.[54] A few examples survived to the modern era, particularlyMyanmar'ssaung-gauk, which is considered the national instrument in that country. Though the ancient Chinesekonghou has not been directly resurrected, the name has been revived and applied to a modern newly invented instrument based on the Western classical harp, but with the strings doubled back to form two notes per string, allowing advanced techniques such as note-bending.[citation needed]
A woman playing a harp on the street inYokohama, Japan
Theconcert harp is a technologically advanced instrument, particularly distinguished by its use of pedals, foot-controlled levers which can alter the pitch of given strings, making itchromatic and thus able to play a wide body of classical repertoire. The pedal harp contains seven pedals that each affect the tuning of all strings of onepitch-class. The pedals, from left to right, are D, C, B on the left side and E, F, G, A on the right. Pedals were first introduced in 1697 by Jakob Hochbrucker of Bavaria.[55] In 1811 these were upgraded to the "double action" pedal system patented by Sébastien Erard.[56]
Harpo Marx would run around performing zany slapstick pantomime comedy with his brothers, then sit down to play beautiful music on the concert harp.
The addition of pedals broadened the harp's abilities, allowing its gradual entry into the classical orchestra, largely beginning in the 19th century. The harp played little or no role in early classical music (being used only a handful of times by major composers such as Mozart and Beethoven), and its use byCesar Franck in his Symphony in D minor (1888) was described as "revolutionary" despite the harp having seen some prior use in orchestral music.[57] In the 20th century, the pedal harp found use outside of classical music, entering musical comedy films in 1929 withArthur "Harpo" Marx, jazz withCasper Reardon in 1934,[58]the Beatles 1967 single "She's Leaving Home", and several works byBjörk which featured harpistZeena Parkins. In the early 1980s, Swiss harpistAndreas Vollenweider exposed the concert harp to large new audiences with his popular new age/jazz albums and concert performances.[59][60]
New Salem Villagere-enactor playing aCeltic harpThe medieval "Queen Mary Harp" (Clàrsach na Banrìgh Màiri) preserved in the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. It is one of three surviving Insular Celtic medieval harps, which serve as protypes for "celtic harps".
In the modern era, there is a family of mid-size harps, generally with nylon strings, and optionally with partial or full levers but without pedals. They range from two to six octaves, and are plucked with the fingers, largely using the same techniques used for playing orchestral harps. Though these harps evoke ties to historical European harps, their specifics are modern, and they are frequently referred to broadly as "Celtic harps" due to their region of revival and popular association, or more generically as "folk harps" due to their use in non-classical music, or as "lever harps" to contrast their modifying mechanism with the larger pedal harp.[61]
The modern Celtic harp began to appear in the early 19th century in Ireland, shortly after all the last generation of harpers had all died-out, breaking the continuity of musical training between the earlier native Gaelic harping tradition and the revival of Celtic harp playing as part of the laterCeltic revival.
John Egan, a pedal harp maker in Dublin, developed a new type of harp which had gut strings and semitone mechanisms like a reduced version of a single-action pedal harp; it was small and curved like the historicalcláirseach or Irish harp, but its strings were of gut and the soundbox was much lighter.[62] In the 1890s a similar new harp was also developed in Scotland as part of thepopular revival of Gaelic culture.[63] In the mid-20th centuryJord Cochevelou developed a variant of the modern Celtic harp which he referred to as the "Breton Celtic harp"; his sonAlan Stivell was to become the most influential Breton harper, and a strong influence in the broader world of the Celtic harp.
Amulti-course harp is a harp with more than one row of strings, as opposed to the more common "single course" harp. On a double-harp, the two rows generally run parallel to each other, one on either side of the neck, and are usually bothdiatonic (sometimes with levers) with identical notes.
Thetriple harp originated in Italy in the 16th century, and arrived in Wales in the late 17th century where it established itself in the local tradition as the Welsh harp (telyn deires, "three-row harp").[64] The triple harp's string set consists of two identical outer rows of standarddiatonicly tuned strings (same as a double-harp) with a third set of strings between them tuned to the missingchromatic notes. The strings are spaced sufficiently for the harpist to reach past the outer row and pluck an inner string when a chromatic note is needed.
Some harps, rather than using pedal or lever devices, achieve chromaticity by simply adding additional strings to cover the notes outside their diatonic home scale. The Welsh triple harp is one such instrument, and two other instruments employing this technique are thecross-strung harp and theinline chromatic harp.
Cross-strung chromatic harp
The cross-strung harp has one row of diatonic strings, and a separate row of chromatic notes, angled in an "X" shape so that the row which can be played by the right hand at the top may be played by the left hand at the bottom, and vice versa. This variant was first attested as thearpa de dos órdenes ("two-row harp") in Spain and Portugal, in the 17th century.[65]
The inline chromatic harp is generally a single-course harp with all 12 notes of the chromatic scale appearing in a single row. Single course inline chromatic harps have been produced at least since 1902, whenKarl Weigel ofHanover patented a model of inline chromatic harp.[66]
Amplified (electro-acoustic) hollow body and solid bodyelectric lever harps are produced by many harp makers, includingLyon & Healy,Salvi, andCamac. They generally use individualpiezo-electric sensors for each string, often in combination with small internal microphones to produce a mixed electrical signal. Hollow body instruments can also be played acoustically, while solid body instruments must be amplified.
Basic structural elements and terminology of a modern concert harp
All harps have aneck,resonator, andstrings,frame harps ortriangular harps have a pillar at their long end to support the strings, whileopen harps, such asarch harps andbow harps, do not.
Harps are essentiallytriangular and made primarily of wood.Strings are made of gut or wire, often replaced in the modern day bynylon or metal. Different harps may usecatgut,nylon,metal, or some combination. The top end of each string is secured on thecrossbar orneck, where each will have atuning peg or similar device to adjust the pitch. From the crossbar, the string runs down to thesounding board on the resonatingbody, where it is secured with a knot; on modern harps the string's hole is protected with aneyelet to limit wear on the wood. The distance between the tuning peg and the soundboard, as well as tension and weight of the string, determine the pitch of the string. The body is hollow, and when ataut string is plucked, the bodyresonates, projecting sound.
The longest side of the harp is called thecolumn orpillar (though some earlier harps, such as a "bow harp", lack a pillar). On most harps the sole purpose of the pillar is to hold up the neck against the great strain of the strings. On harps which have pedals (largely the modern concert harp), the pillar is a hollow column and encloses the rods which adjust the pitches, which are levered by pressing pedals at the base of the instrument.
Harps vary globally in many ways. In terms of size, many smaller harps can be played on the lap, whereas larger harps are quite heavy and rest on the floor. Pedal harps tend to be bigger than lever harps.[67]
On harps of earlier design a single string produces only a single pitch. In many cases, this means such a harp can only play in one key at a time and must be retuned to play in another key. Harpers andluthiers developed varying techniques to extend the range andchromaticism of the strings (e.g., adding sharps and flats) seen in modern harps:
the addition of extra strings to coverchromatic notes (sometimes in separate or angled rows distinct from the main row of strings),
addition of small levers on the crossbar which when actuated raise the pitch of a string by a set interval (usually a semitone)
use of pedals at the base of the instrument, pressed with the foot, which move additional small pegs on the crossbar. The small pegs gently contact the string near the tuning peg, changing the vibrating length, but not the tension, and hence the pitch of the string.
These solutions increase the versatility of a harp at the cost of adding complexity, weight, and expense.
Onlever harps a string's note is changed by flipping a lever. Each lever acts on a single string, shortening it enough to raise the pitch by a chromatic sharp.[67]
Onpedal harps depressing the pedal one step turns geared levers on the strings for all octaves of a single pitch (for example, pressing the C pedal will make every C not a C sharp).[67] Most pedal harps also allow a second step that turns a second set of levers. Thepedal harp is a standard instrument in theorchestra of theRomantic music era (ca. 1800–1910 CE) and the 20th and 21st century music era.
The modern English word harp comes from the Old Englishhearpe; akin to Old High Germanharpha.[68] A person who plays a pedal harp is called a "harpist";[69] a person who plays a folk-harp is called a "harper" or sometimes a "harpist";[70] either may be called a "harp-player", and the distinctions are not strict.
A number of instruments that are not harps are none-the-less colloquially referred to as "harps". Chordophones like theaeolian harp (wind harp), theautoharp, thepsaltery, as well as the piano andharpsichord, are not harps, butzithers, because their strings are parallel to their soundboard. Harps' strings rise approximately perpendicularly from the soundboard. Similarly, the many varieties ofharp guitar andharp lute, while chordophones, belong to thelute family and are not true harps. All forms of thelyre andkithara are also not harps, but belong to the fourth family of ancient instruments under the chordophones, thelyres, closely related to thezither family.
The term "harp" has also been applied to many instruments which are not even chordophones. Thevibraphone was (and is still) sometimes referred to as the "vibraharp", though it has no strings and its sound is produced by striking metal bars. In blues music, the harmonica is often casually referred to as a "blues harp" or "harp", but it is afree reed wind instrument, not a stringed instrument, and is therefore not a true harp. TheJew's harp is neither Jewish nor a harp; it is aplucked idiophone and likewise not a stringed instrument. Thelaser harp is not a stringed instrument at all, but is a harp-shaped electronic instrument controller that has laser beams where harps have strings.
In traditional Gaelic society everyclan and chief of any consequence would have a resident harp player who would compose eulogies and elegies (later known as "planxties") in honour of the leader and chief men of the clan. The harp was adopted as a symbol of theKingdom of Ireland on the coinage from 1542, and in theRoyal Standard ofKing James VI and I in 1603 and continued to feature on all English and United Kingdom Royal Standards ever since, though the styles of the harps depicted differed in some respects. It was also used on theCommonwealth Jack ofOliver Cromwell issued in 1649 and on theProtectorate Jack issued in 1658 as well as on the Lord Protector's Standard issued on the succession ofRichard Cromwell in 1658. The harp is also traditionally used on theflag of Leinster.
In the context ofChristianity,heaven is sometimes symbolically depicted as populated byangels playing harps, giving the instrument associations of the sacred and heavenly. In the Bible,Genesis 4:21 says thatJubal, the first musician and son ofLamech, was 'the father of all who play' the harp and flute.[72][73][74]
Many depictions ofKing David in Jewish art have him holding or playing a harp, such as a sculpture outsideKing David's tomb in Jerusalem.[75]
Pub advertising sign for the Irish beer brandGuinness
The harp is also used extensively as acorporate logo, predominantly by companies that have, or wish to suggest, a connection with Ireland. The Irish brewerGuinness has used a right-facing harp (in contrast to the Irish State emblem's left-facing version) as its emblem since 1759, theHarp Lager brand has done so since 1960. TheIrish Independent newspaper has used a harp in itsmasthead since 1961. The Irish airlineRyanair, founded in 1985, also features a stylised harp in its logo.
In sport, the harp is used in the emblems of the League of Ireland football teamFinn Harps F.C., Donegal's senior soccer club. Outside of Ireland, it appears in the badge of theScottish Premiership teamHibernian F.C. – a team originally founded by Irish emigrants.
Not all sporting uses of the harp are references to Ireland, however: the Iraqi football clubAl-Shorta has used a harp as its emblem since the early 1990s, after they gained the nicknameAl-Qithara (Assyrian Neo-Aramaic:"the harp") when their style of play was likened to fine harp-playing by a television presenter.
^"ARCHED HARP OR BOW HARP".The University of Edinburgh, Musical Instruments Museums Edinburgh.5 wire strings attached to lateral pegs in neck and attached at lower end to perforated wooden plaque anchored into the belly
^Michael Chanan (1994).Musica Practica: The Social Practice of Western Music from Gregorian Chant to Postmodernism. Verso. p. 170.ISBN978-1-85984-005-4.
^Michael Chanan (1994).Musica Practica: The Social Practice of Western Music from Gregorian Chant to Postmodernism. Verso. p. 170.ISBN978-1-85984-005-4.
^"History of the Harp".internationalharpmuseum.org. International Harp Museum. Archived from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved18 June 2016.
^Agnew, Neville (28 June – 3 July 2004).Conservation of Ancient Sites on the Silk Road. The Second International Conference on the Conservation of Grotto Sites. Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, People's Republic of China: Getty Publications (published 3 August 2010). pp. 118 ff.ISBN978-1-60606-013-1.
^Śrīrāma Goyala (1 August 1992).Reappraising Gupta History: For S.R. Goyal. Aditya Prakashan. p. 237.ISBN978-81-85179-78-0.... yazh resembles this old vina ... however it is the Burmese harp which seems to have been handed down in almost unchanged form since ancient times
^"Konghou".Encyclopædia Britannica (web ed.). Retrieved2 October 2018.
^Méndez, Marcela (1 January 2004).Historia del arpa en la Argentina. Editorial de Entre Rios. p. 36.ISBN978-950-686-137-7.
^Schechter, John Mendell (1992).The Indispensable Harp: Historical Development, Modern Roles, Configurations, and Performance Practices in Ecuador and Latin America. Kent State University Press. p. 36.ISBN978-0-87338-439-1.
^Schechter, John Mendell (1992).The Indispensable Harp: Historical development, modern roles, configurations, and performance practices in Ecuador and Latin America. Kent State University Press. p. 201.ISBN978-0-87338-439-1.
^"Music in Prehistoric Armenia".Journal of Literature and Art Studies.5 (4). 28 April 2015.doi:10.17265/2159-5836/2015.04.003.The mentioned data are confirmed by archaeological evidence on musical instruments (cf. Kushnareva, 2000; Khachatryan, 2001), according to which during Bronze and Iron Ages (ca. 3rd-2nd millennia B.C.) the following stringed, wind and percussive instruments were known in Armenia: lyre, harp, lute, pipe-flute, drum, and bell-shaped objects...The appearance of the harp/lyre must be connected to Near Eastern influences.
^Xie Jin."Reflection upon Chinese Recently Unearthed Konghous in Xin Jiang Autonomous Region". Musicology Department, Shanghai Conservatory of Music, China. Archived fromthe original on 4 March 2016.The konghous in Xinjiang are not only similar between themselves，but also alike with the ancient harps in Pazyryk (350 B.C, FIG. 4) [vii], Assyria (650 B.C, FIG. 5), and Olbia (400-200 B.C, FIG. 6)
^Tahmizyan, Narine (1997).Երաժշտության տեսությունը հին Հայաստանում [Music Theory in Ancient Armenia] (in Armenian). Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR. p. 41.
^Harutyunyan, Gayane (2020).Հայկական տավիղներ [Armenian Harps].Երաժշտական Հայաստան [Musical Armenia] (in Armenian).
^Shepherd, John; Horn, David; Laing, Dave; Oliver, Paul;Wicke, Peter (8 May 2003).Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. Vol. Part 1 Performance and Production. A&C Black. pp. 435 ff.ISBN978-1-84714-472-0.
^Alvad, Thomas (October 1954). "The Kafir Harp".Man.54. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland:151–154.doi:10.2307/2795578.JSTOR2795578. 233.
^Neville Agnew (28 June – 3 July 2004).Conservation of ancient sites on the Silk Road. The Second International Conference on the Conservation of Grotto Sites. Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, People's Republic of China: Getty Publications (published 3 August 2010). pp. 121ff.ISBN978-1-60606-013-1.
^Rimmer, Joan (1977).The Irish Harp. Mercier Press for the Cultural Relations Committee. p. 67.
^Collinson, Francis (1983)[1966].The Bagpipe, Fiddle and Harp. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966; reprinted by Lang Syne Publishers Ltd.,ISBN0946264481,ISBN978-0946264483
^Koch, John T. (2006).Celtic Culture: A historical encyclopedia. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 893ff.ISBN978-1-85109-440-0.
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