Harold Holt | |
|---|---|
 Holt in the late 1950s | |
| 17th Prime Minister of Australia | |
| In office 26 January 1966 – 17 December 1967 | |
| Monarch | Elizabeth II |
| Governor-General | Lord Casey |
| Deputy | John McEwen (de facto) |
| Preceded by | Robert Menzies |
| Succeeded by | John McEwen |
| 2ndLeader of the Liberal Party | |
| In office 20 January 1966 – 17 December 1967 | |
| Deputy | William McMahon |
| Preceded by | Robert Menzies |
| Succeeded by | John Gorton (1968) |
| Deputy Leader of the Liberal Party | |
| In office 26 September 1956 – 20 January 1966 | |
| Leader | Robert Menzies |
| Preceded by | Eric Harrison |
| Succeeded by | William McMahon |
| Leader of the House | |
| In office 26 September 1956 – 26 January 1966 | |
| Preceded by | Eric Harrison |
| Succeeded by | David Fairbairn |
| Treasurer of Australia | |
| In office 10 December 1958 – 26 January 1966 | |
| Prime Minister | Robert Menzies |
| Preceded by | Arthur Fadden |
| Succeeded by | William McMahon |
| Minister for Labour and National Service | |
| In office 19 December 1949 – 10 December 1958 | |
| Prime Minister | Robert Menzies |
| Preceded by | Jack Holloway |
| Succeeded by | William McMahon |
| In office 28 October 1940 – 7 October 1941 | |
| Prime Minister | Robert Menzies Arthur Fadden |
| Succeeded by | Eddie Ward |
| Minister for Immigration | |
| In office 19 December 1949 – 24 October 1956 | |
| Prime Minister | Robert Menzies |
| Preceded by | Arthur Calwell |
| Succeeded by | Athol Townley |
| Minister of Scientific and Industrial Research | |
| In office 28 October 1940 – 28 August 1941 | |
| Prime Minister | Robert Menzies |
| Preceded by | Herbert Collett |
| Succeeded by | John Dedman |
| Member of theAustralian Parliament forHiggins | |
| In office 10 December 1949 – 17 December 1967 | |
| Succeeded by | John Gorton |
| Member of theAustralian Parliament forFawkner | |
| In office 17 August 1935 – 10 December 1949 | |
| Preceded by | George Maxwell |
| Succeeded by | Bill Bourke |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Harold Edward Holt (1908-08-05)5 August 1908 Stanmore, New South Wales, Australia |
| Died | 17 December 1967(1967-12-17) (aged 59) Cheviot Beach,Victoria, Australia |
| Cause of death | Drowning (presumed) |
| Political party | United Australia (until 1945) Liberal (after 1945) |
| Spouse | |
| Relations | Vera Pearce (aunt) |
| Children | 3 |
| Alma mater | University of Melbourne |
| Profession | Lawyer |
| Signature |  |
| Nickname | Gunner Holt |
| Military service | |
| Branch/service | Australian Imperial Force |
| Years of service | 1939–1940 |
| Rank | Gunner |
| Unit | 2/4th Field Regiment |
| Battles/wars | World War II |
Harold Edward Holt (5 August 1908 – 17 December 1967) was an Australian politician who served as the 17thprime minister of Australia from 1966 untilhis disappearance and presumed death in 1967. He held office as leader of theLiberal Party of Australia and held variousministerial positions from 1949 to 1966 in the governments ofRobert Menzies andArthur Fadden.
Holt was born inSydney and moved toMelbourne in childhood, studying law at theUniversity of Melbourne. Before entering politics he practised law and was a lobbyist for cinema operators. He was first elected to theHouse of Representatives at the1935 Fawkner by-election, aged 27, as a member of theUnited Australia Party (UAP). Holt was made aminister without portfolio in 1939, when his mentorRobert Menzies became prime minister. His tenure in the ministry was interrupted by a brief stint in theAustralian Army, which ended when he was recalled to cabinet following the deaths of three ministers in the1940 Canberra air disaster. The government was defeated in 1941, sending the UAP into opposition, and he joined the new Liberal Party upon its creation in 1945.
When the Liberals came to officein 1949, Holt became a senior figure inthe new government. AsMinister for Immigration (1949–1956), he expanded thepost-war immigration scheme and relaxed theWhite Australia policy for the first time. He was also influential asMinister for Labour and National Service (1949–1958), where he handled several industrial relations disputes. Holt was elected deputy leader of the Liberal Party in 1956, and after the1958 election replacedArthur Fadden asTreasurer. He oversaw the creation of theReserve Bank of Australia and the decimalAustralian dollar, but was blamed for acredit crunch that almost cost theCoalition the1961 election. However, the economy soon rebounded and Holt retained his place as Menzies' heir apparent.
Holt became prime minister in January 1966,elected unopposed as Liberal leader following Menzies' retirement. He foughta general election later that year, winning a landslide victory. TheHolt government continued the dismantling of the White Australia policy,amended the constitution to give the federal government responsibility forindigenous affairs, and took Australia out of thesterling area. Holt promoted greater engagement with Asia and the Pacific, and made visits to a number of East Asian countries. His government expandedAustralia's involvement in theVietnam War, and maintained close ties with the United States under PresidentLyndon B. Johnson. While visiting theWhite House, Holt proclaimed that he was "all the way with LBJ", a remark which was poorly received at home.
In December 1967, Holtdisappeared while swimming in rough conditions atCheviot Beach,Victoria. He waspresumed dead, although his body was never recovered; his disappearance spawned a number of conspiracy theories. Holt was the third Australian prime minister to die in office. He was succeeded by Country Party leaderJohn McEwen on an interim basis and then byJohn Gorton. His death was commemorated in a number of ways, among them by the establishment of theHarold Holt Memorial Swimming Centre in Melbourne, and theHarold E. Holt Naval Communication Station in Exmouth (Western Australia).
Holt was born on 5 August 1908 at his parents' home inStanmore, New South Wales, a suburb ofSydney. He was the first of two sons born to Olive May (née Williams; formerly Pearce)[a] and Thomas James Holt; his younger brother Clifford was born in 1910. His parents had married seven months before his birth, in January 1908.[1]
Holt's mother was born inEudunda,South Australia, and had Cornish, English, German, and Irish ancestry; her sister was the actressVera Pearce.[1] Holt's father had trained as a schoolteacher in Sydney and was working as a physical education teacher at theCleveland Street School inSurry Hills at the time of his son's birth. His paternal grandfather Thomas Holt Sr. owned a large farming property inNubba, and was twice elected mayor of nearbyWallendbeen.[1] He was more distantly descended from James Holt, a cobbler fromBirmingham, England, who arrived in New South Wales in 1829.[2]
In 1914, Holt's parents moved toAdelaide, where his father became the licensee of a hotel inPayneham. He and his brother stayed behind in Sydney, living with an uncle and attendingRandwick Public School. In late 1916, Holt was sent to live with grandparents in the country, where he briefly attended the Nubba State School. He returned to Sydney the following year, and for three years was enrolled atAbbotsholme College, a private school inKillara; his parents separated around that time.[1] In 1920, Holt began boarding atWesley College, Melbourne. He was a popular and talented student, winning a scholarship in his final year and graduating second in his class. Holt generally spent school holidays with his relatives in Nubba or with schoolmates, rather than with his parents – his father had begun working as a talent agent, touring the country on theTivoli circuit, while his mother died in 1925. He was 16 at the time, and was unable to attend the funeral.[3]
In 1927, Holt began studying law at theUniversity of Melbourne, living atQueen's College on a scholarship. He represented the university incricket andfootball, and was also active in various student organisations, serving as president of the Law Students' Society and of the Queen's College social club. Holt won prizes for oratory and essay-writing, and was a member of the inter-university debating team. He graduated with aBachelor of Laws degree in 1930. Holt's father – living in London – invited him to continue his studies in England, but he declined the offer.[4]
Holt served hisarticles of clerkship with the firm ofFink,Best & Miller. He was admitted to theVictorian Bar in late 1932, and opened his own legal practice the following year. However, clients during theDepression were scarce and frequently underpaid, so Holt lived in a boardinghouse and often relied upon the hospitality of friends.[4] Drawing on his family connections in show business, he eventually accepted an offer to become secretary of the Victorian Cinematograph Exhibitors' Association, a film industry lobby group. In this capacity he appeared several times before theCommonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration.[5][6] This had a positive effect on his own practice, and he eventually took on two partners, first Jack Graham and later James Newman.[7] The firm of Holt, Graham, & Newman was dissolved in 1963, following a financial dispute and subsequently reconstituted as Holt, Newman, & Holt, with Holt's son Sam as the new addition. Holt's involvement in the practice declined once he entered politics and ceased altogether in 1949, although he did not formally retire until assuming the prime ministership.[8]
In 1933, Holt joined theYoung Nationalists, the youth wing of theUnited Australia Party.[6] He cultivated a friendship withMabel Brookes, and through Brookes became acquainted with senior members of the influentialAustralian Women's National League (AWNL). He also secured the patronage ofRobert Menzies, with whom he shared a similar background and political views.[9] At the1934 federal election, Holt stood for the UAP in theDivision of Yarra. It was asafe seat for theLabor Party, held by the party's leader (and former prime minister)James Scullin. Holt lost heavily, as was expected, but was praised for his campaigning.[6] Early the following year, he contestedClifton Hill – another safe Labor seat – at theVictorian state election, losing toBert Cremean.[10] Holt was eventually elected to parliament on his third attempt, winninga federal by-election for the seat ofFawkner in August 1935; his predecessor,George Maxwell, had died in office. He won UAPpreselection against five other candidates, a victory whichSmith's Weekly attributed to his "political godmothers" in the AWNL.[9][11] His new seat was centred on Melbourne's wealthy inner-eastern suburbs.[12]
Holt was twenty-seven years old when he entered parliament, making him its youngest member. He kept a relatively low profile in his first few years, but spoke on a wide range of topics.[13] When Robert Menzies became prime minister in April 1939, he made Holt one of fourministers without portfolio. His inclusion was made possible by the collapse ofthe coalition with theCountry Party – previously a certain number of positions had been reserved for Country MPs, butthe new ministry was composed solely of UAP members.[14] Although Holt officially had no portfolio, he effectively was an assistant minister toRichard Casey, who headed theDepartment of Supply & Development. He was given responsibility for theCouncil for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR),[15] and also acted for periods asMinister for Trade and Customs andMinister for Civil Aviation and Air while the incumbents were overseas.[16] Holt's first stint as a government minister came to an end in March 1940, when the coalition with the Country Party was reinstituted. His replacement wasArthur Fadden, another future prime minister.[17]
Holt enlisted in theMilitia in February 1939, joining a part-time artillery unit for businessmen and professionals. He was given indefinite leave during his ministerial service.[18] In May 1940, without resigning his seat, Holt enlisted in theAustralian Imperial Force with the intent of becoming a full-time soldier. Several of his parliamentary colleagues did likewise at various points in the war.[b] Holt was posted to the2/4th Field Regiment, holding the rank ofgunner. He had been offered a commission as an officer in theRoyal Australian Air Force, but declined due to his lack of experience. In a press statement, Holt said "as the youngest member of the House, I could not feel happy in my position if I were not prepared to make some sacrifice and take an active part".[19] He was sent toPuckapunyal for training, and expected to be posted to North Africa or Palestine.[21]
Holt's brief military career came to an end as a result of theCanberra air disaster on 13 August, which killed three senior government ministers. Menzies calledan early general election for 21 September, which resulted in ahung parliament and a UAP–Country minority government. Holt was given leave from the army to campaign, and won re-election with a large majority. Menzies subsequently asked him to return to cabinet, to which he agreed.[22] Holt was sworn in asMinister for Labour and National Service on 28 October, and formally resigned from the army the same day. He was placed in charge of the newDepartment of Labour and National Service, which took over most of the responsibilities of the previousDepartment of Industry.[23] He also became a member of the bipartisanAdvisory War Council, although he personally favoured the establishment of anational unity government with the Labor Party.[24]
As labour minister, Holt's foremost task was to prevent industrial disputes from disrupting the war effort.[25] He met with union leaders and employer groups, and secured their agreement to a streamlining of the arbitration process while the war was underway.[23] He had also been madeMinister in charge of Scientific and Industrial Research, which gave him responsibility for theCSIR and its wartime efforts.[23] In April 1941, Holt sponsored and oversaw the passage of theChild Endowment Act, which introduced a universalchild endowment scheme;[c] newspapers labelled him "the godfather to a million Australian children".[26] When leadership troubles hit the Coalition later in the year, Holt initially supported Menzies. However, he and five cabinet colleagues eventually transferred their allegiance toArthur Fadden, the leader of the Country Party, believing this way the only to ensure stable government. Menzies felt he had been betrayed, but forgave Holt and accepted his assurances that he had been acting in the best interests of the country.[27] He retained his portfolios in theFadden government, which lasted only 40 days before being defeated on aconfidence motion in October 1941.[28]
After going intoopposition, Holt kept a reasonably low profile for the remainder of the war, except for his membership of the Joint Committee on War Expenditure.[28] He was criticised by some for not re-joining the army,[29] and at the1943 election was opposed by BrigadierWilliam Cremor, whose campaign was funded by Sydney businessmen (includingKeith Murdoch). He lost a significant portion of hisprimary vote, but suffered only a small swing on thetwo-party-preferred count.[30] Menzies returned as leader of the UAPin September 1943, and Holt was initially a candidate for the deputy leadership; he withdrew once former prime ministerBilly Hughes entered the race.[31] Holt was in favour of the creation of theLiberal Party as a successor to the UAP, but played little role in the practical aspects of its establishment. He became an official member of the new party in February 1945.[32]
Holt transferred to the newly created seat ofHiggins at the1949 federal election, which saw the ALP government defeated in a landslide. Inthe new government he was re-appointed to his former post of Minister for Labour and National Service and was also madeMinister for Immigration, with Menzies returning as prime minister at the head of a coalition between the Liberal Party and Country Party.[5]
Holt's portfolios gave him a high public profile, along with his extra role as minister responsible for the1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne.[33] He also served as chairman of theCommonwealth Parliamentary Association from 1952 to 1955, which allowed him to travel frequently and develop a reputation overseas.[5] In 1956, Holt was elected deputy leader of the Liberal Party afterEric Harrison's retirement, defeatingRichard Casey andWilliam Spooner. He was also appointedLeader of the House.[5] By this time he was already seen as Menzies' heir apparent,[33] although he was apparently content to wait for Menzies to retire and never considered challenging his leadership.[34]
During the1955 election campaign, Holt was hospitalised with head injuries for two weeks after a single-car accident which killed his driver, Gustav Heilster.[35]
Holt oversaw the continued expansion of thepost-war immigration scheme begun by the Chifley government and was said to favour a "big, virile population".[33] He continued the policy of giving preference to British migrants, but did expand theAssisted Passage Migration Scheme to include other countries.[5] Immigration policy initially focused on family migration, but from the early 1950s targeted skilled workers for theSnowy Mountains Scheme and other public infrastructure projects.[36] In 1955, Holt publicly welcomed Australia's one millionth post-war migrant and said he was "looking forward to our second million".[37] The following year, following theSoviet invasion of Hungary, he secured cabinet approval for 10,000 Hungarian refugees to settle in Australia.[36]
Holt and the government did not break from theWhite Australia policy, but he believed it needed to be administered more tactfully to avoid offending Australia's Asian neighbours.[5] He allowed 800 non-European refugees to remain in Australia, stopping the enforcement of Calwell'sWar-time Refugees Removal Act 1949, and in the early 1950s allowed Japanese war brides to join their Australian husbands.[38] As opposition spokesman for immigration, Holt had been critical of previous immigration ministerArthur Calwell's treatment ofLorenzo Gamboa, a Filipino man with an Australian wife and children who had been denied entry by Calwell due to his race. One of his first acts as minister was to allow Gamboa to enter Australia and reunite with his family.[39]
As labour minister, Holt was credited with reducing industrial conflict, with working hours lost to strikes reducing significantly during his tenure.[40] He had a close relationship withAlbert Monk, the president of theAustralian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU), which led to criticism from Monk's colleagues in the labour movement and led Calwell to speak of a "Holt-Monk axis".[41] In 1950, at Monk's suggestion, Holt commissioned the first national inquiry intovocational education and training, with a particular focus on apprenticeship schemes.[42] He also had a good working relationship withJim Healy, the general secretary of theWaterside Workers' Federation which had been the source of several industrial disputes.[43]
Holt introduced legislation in 1951 to mandate the use ofsecret ballots in union elections. After theHigh Court's ruling in theBoilermakers' case in 1956, he also oversaw the replacement of theCommonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration with a separateCommonwealth Industrial Court, "thus establishing the modern form of the federal arbitration system".[5] WhenAustralia became involved in the Korean War, Holt became responsible for administered the reintroduced conscription scheme under theNational Service Act 1951.[5]
In December 1958, following the retirement ofArthur Fadden, Holt succeeded him asTreasurer.[5] Holt had little knowledge or interest in economics, but the job cemented his position as Menzies' likely successor.[44] As Treasurer, Holt relied strongly on the advice of Treasury secretaryRoland Wilson.[45] His achievements included major reforms to the banking system (originated by Fadden) – including the establishment of theReserve Bank of Australia – and the planning and preparation for the introduction ofdecimal currency. It was Holt who convinced Cabinet to call the new currency the "dollar" rather than the "royal".[46]
The economy Holt inherited was growing strongly, aided by the opening of new iron ore mines.[47] However, in 1959, inflation was running at 4.5% and Treasury was alarmed. Holt was reluctant to act, but in November 1960 introduced a deflationary package of tax changes. He also reluctantly agreed to an interest rate rise by the Reserve Bank. Thecredit squeeze was nicknamed the "Holt jolt". The economy went into recession, and unemployment rose to three percent, which was considered high for the time and contrary to the government's policy offull employment.[48][49]
The credit squeeze brought the Coalition dangerously close to losing the1961 election, with the Coalition being returned with a precarious one-seat majority. There were calls for Holt to be sacked, but he retained Menzies' support.[50] He later described 1960–61 as "my most difficult year in public life". Most of the deflationary measures were reversed in 1962,[46] and unemployment dropped down to 1.5 percent by August 1963.[51] In later budgets, Holt retreated to his Queensland holiday home while it was being prepared.[52] He said that the 1965 budget "has had the best reception yet of any in the series I have presented".[53]
Holt was sworn in as prime minister on 26 January 1966, following the retirement of Robert Menzies six days earlier. He wonthe leadership election unopposed, withWilliam McMahon elected as his deputy.[54] His swearing in was delayed by the death of Defence MinisterShane Paltridge; he and Menzies were both pallbearers at Paltridge's state funeral on 25 January.[55][56] Holt was the first Australian prime minister born in the 20th century and the first born afterfederation. He was almost fourteen years younger than his predecessor, but, at the age of 57, was still the fourth-oldest man to assume the office.
He had been an MP for over 30 years before becoming prime minister, still the longest wait for any non-caretaker Prime Minister. The only person who had a longer wait was his caretaker successorJohn McEwen, who had served 33 years before ascending to the post.[57] Stylistically, Holt was more informal and contemporary than Menzies, and his wife accompanied him into the political spotlight.[54] He gave the media an unprecedented level of access, and was the first prime minister to conduct regular press conferences and grant regular television interviews. His press secretary,Tony Eggleton, accompanied him virtually every time he travelled.[58]
Holt's initial cabinet was virtually unchanged from that of his predecessor.John Gorton andLes Bury were promoted to replace Menzies and Paltridge, but there were no other changes in composition. There were also no major changes in portfolio, outside of McMahon's promotion to Treasurer in place of Holt. A notable addition to the outer ministry was SenatorAnnabelle Rankin asMinister for Housing – the first woman to hold a ministerial portfolio.[59][d] A minorreshuffle occurred after the 1966 election, withDoug Anthony andIan Sinclair added to cabinet andCharles Barnes demoted to the outer ministry. The only new government department created during Holt's tenure was theDepartment of Education and Science, established in December 1966, which was the first federal department specific to either of those areas.[60] The Country Party leader and de factoDeputy Prime Minister,John McEwen, was effectively given veto power over government policy by virtue of being the longest-tenured member of the government.
| External videos | |
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 Newsreel footage of the 1966 election fromPathé News |
On 26 November 1966, Holt fought his first and only general election as prime minister, winning a somewhat unexpected landslide victory. The Coalition secured 56.9 percent of thetwo-party-preferred vote, gaining 10 seats and bringing its total number of seats in theHouse of Representatives to 82 out of 124, the largest majority government in Australian history at the time. The Liberals finished only two seats away from forming majority government in its own right. It was a higher margin of victory than Menzies had achieved in eight elections as Liberal leader, and was theLabor Party's worst electoral defeatin 31 years.[61]
Holt received little credit for the Coalition's election victory, even from within his own party.[62] It was generally held that the Labor Party's poor campaign had been the major factor in its defeat.Arthur Calwell, theLeader of the Opposition, was 70 years old and had limited personal popularity – aGallup poll before the election placed his personal approval rating at 24 percent, compared with Holt's 60 percent.[63] Calwell had suffered a damaging rift with his deputyGough Whitlam earlier in the year, and the general public still perceived the party as divided.[64] In an election where the Vietnam War was a major campaign issue, he and Whitlam publicly contradicted each other on major policy decisions.[e] Labor ran on an anti-war platform, but struggled to appeal to voters concerned about national security; combined with Calwell's dedication to theWhite Australia policy, this allowed the party to be portrayed as isolationist and naive about external affairs.[f] Calwell was far less telegenic than his opponent, and was seen as gruff and antagonistic where Holt was suave and easy-going. At a rally inAdelaide a week before the election, Calwell accused Holt of having "chickened out of World War II – just as his three stepsons are chickening out of the war in Vietnam today". His attack on Holt's family – which he refused to withdraw – was viewed as desperate and undignified, and it was pointed out that, unlike Holt, Calwell had performed no military service in World War II.[60]
In early 1967, Calwell retired as ALP leader. Whitlam succeeded him, and proved a far more effective opponent than Calwell had been, consistently getting the better of Holt both in the media and in parliament. Labor soon began to recover from its losses and gain ground.[5] By this time, the long-suppressed tensions between the Coalition partners over economic and trade policies were also beginning to emerge. Throughout his reign as Liberal leader, Menzies had enforced strict party discipline but, once he was gone, dissension began to surface. Some Liberals soon became dissatisfied by what they saw as Holt's weak leadership.Alan Reid asserts that Holt was being increasingly criticised within the party in the months before his death, that he was perceived as being "vague, imprecise and evasive" and "nice to the point that his essential decency was viewed as weakness".
According to his biographerTom Frame, "Holt's inclinations and sympathies were those of the political centre [...] he was a pragmatist rather than a philosopher, but he nonetheless claimed a philosophical lineage connecting him withAlfred Deakin and approvingly quoted his statement that 'we are liberal always, radical often, and reactionary never'."[65]
Holt as prime minister was sometimes criticised for a failure to be assertive on economic matters. A majordrought in 1965 had led to slowdown in growth, but he was unwilling to increase public spending in case it increased inflation.[66] TheAustralian dollar – a legacy of Holt's period as Treasurer – came into circulation on 14 February 1966, less than a month after his prime ministership began. In November 1967, the British government unexpectedly announced that it would be devaluing thepound sterling by 14 percent. Holt announced that the Australian government would not follow suit, effectively withdrawing Australia from thesterling area. The decision was strongly opposed by the Country Party, who feared it would disadvantage primary industry. McEwen went as far as to issue a public statement criticising the decision, which Holt considered a breach ofcabinet solidarity. The dispute caused a breakdown in Holt and McEwen's relationship and nearly brought down the Coalition; at one point, Holt made preparations for the Liberals to govern as a minority government the event McEwen tore up the Coalition agreement. Ultimately, the dispute was resolved in Holt's favour.The Bulletin said that the withdrawal was "quite certain to mean the end of any remaining special relationship between Australia and Britain".[67] There were no other important economic policy reforms made by the Holt government, although Australia did become a founding member of theAsian Development Bank in 1966.[68]
As prime minister, Holt continued the liberalisation of immigration law that he had begun as Minister for Immigration. When he came to office, what remained of theWhite Australia policy was upheld byministerial decree rather than by explicit legislation. In March 1966, the residency requirement fornaturalisation was changed to a uniform five years; it had previously been 15 years for non-whites. Discriminatory provisions relating tofamily reunification were also removed.[69] As a result, in the two years after March 1966 around 3,000 Asian immigrants were granted Australian citizenship,[70] compared with 4,100 in the preceding two decades.[71] Additionally, Immigration MinisterHubert Opperman announced that potential immigrants to Australia would be assessed solely "on the basis of their suitability as settlers, their ability to integrate readily, and their possession of qualifications which are in fact positively useful to Australia";[72] non-whites had previously had to demonstrate that they were "highly qualified and distinguished" to gain entry.[69]
Keith Wilson believed that the Holt government's reforms ensured that "from now on there will not be in any of our laws or in any of our regulations anything that discriminates against migrants on the grounds of colour or race". However, there would not be a practical change in the composition of Australia's immigration intake for many more years.[73] Holt maintained that "every country reserves to itself the right to decide what the composition of its people shall be", and promised "a community life free from serious minority and racial problems".[74] He was careful to frame his changes as simply a modification of existing policy, in order to avoid alienating organised labour (historically the greatest supporters of restricting non-white immigration).[66] The Labor Party had only removed "White Australia" from its platform in 1965, and Opposition LeaderArthur Calwell stated he was "determined to continue to oppose, for many obvious reasons, any attempt to create a multi-racial society in our midst".[75] However, Holt was less circumspect outside Australia, telling British journalists that no White Australia policy existed and ordering Australian embassies to promote the changes to Asian governments and media outlets.[69][76]
In 1967, the Holt government amended the constitution to altersection 51 (xxvi) and removesection 127. This gave the federal government the power to legislate specifically forIndigenous Australians, and also mandated counting Indigenous people in thecensus. The constitutional amendments requireda referendum before they could be enacted, which passed with over 90 percent of the vote; it remains the largest referendum majorityin Australian history. Holt personally considered the amendments unnecessary and mostly symbolic, but thought they would be well received by the international community (particularly Asia).[77] According toBarrie Dexter, he was privately shocked by the referendum result, having been uncertain whether it would even pass.[78]
Holt came to regard the referendum as indicative of a shift in the national mood. In the following months, he toured Aboriginal communities and consulted with indigenous leaders, includingCharles Perkins andKath Walker. Despite opposition from state governments,[g] he created a newOffice of Aboriginal Affairs within thePrime Minister's Department, as well as a new advisory body called the Council of Aboriginal Affairs (chaired byH. C. Coombs).[79] According to Coombs andPaul Hasluck, Holt had little interest in indigenous affairs before becoming prime minister.[h] Despite this, he brought about a fundamental shift in the way policy was handled, paving the way for the federal government to assume many of the powers and responsibilities that had previously been the preserve of the states. Indigenous academicGary Foley has said that Holt's death was a setback for Aboriginal people, as his successors did not show the same commitment to the framework that he established.[81]
The Holt government also unsuccessfully attempted to removesection 24 of the constitution (the so-called "nexus clause"), which requires the number of members in the House of Representatives to be "as nearly as practicable, twice the number of senators".The resulting referendum did not come close to passing, with only 40 percent voting in favour nationwide and only one state (New South Wales) recording a majority. All three major-party leaders campaigned for the "Yes" vote, while opposition came mainly from Coalition backbenchers andDemocratic Labor Party senators. Supporters of the "No" vote successfully argued that section 24 protected the influence of the Senate, and thus the interests of less populous states and rural areas.[82] Holt did make one other significant legal reform, albeit one that did not require a constitutional amendment. In September 1967, he announced that his government would usesection 74 of the constitution to remove the potential forHigh Court cases to be appealed to theJudicial Committee of the Privy Council. The necessary legislation was not passed until after his death.[i]
In November 1967, in one of his last major policy statements, Holt announced the establishment of theNational Gallery of Australia and theAustralia Council for the Arts. The National Gallery, which did not open until 1982, was the first arts-related major infrastructure project to be funded by the federal government; previous projects had been funded by state governments or by private subscription. Holt said it would "add significantly to the cultural life of Australia and the national capital".[84] The other element of his announcement, the Australia Council for the Arts, was the first nationalarts council, intended to provide arms-length advice to thePrime Minister's Department on arts funding.[85]Rupert Myer has suggested that "Holt's legacy ought to be a core belief in, and broad public demand for, the sustained support of cultural activity from all three tiers of government".[86]
Holt believed it was his responsibility as prime minister "to reflect the modern Australia to my fellow countrymen, to our allies and the outside world at large".[87] His approach to national security emphasised opposition to international communism and the need to engage more with Asia. Holt said that the "great central fact of modern history" was "the tremendous power conflict between the communist world and the free world".[88] He was a strong believer in thedomino theory andcontainment, holding that communism had to be fought wherever it occurred in order to prevent it spreading to neighbouring countries.[64] In April 1967, Holt told parliament that "geographically we are part of Asia, and increasingly we have become aware of our involvement in the affairs of Asia – our greatest dangers and our highest hopes are centred in Asia's tomorrows".[89]Gough Whitlam said that Holt "made Australia better known in Asia and he made Australians more aware of Asia than ever before [...] this I believe was his most important contribution to our future".[90]
Personal diplomacy was Holt's strong point – he believed diplomatic ties could be strengthened by making intimate connections with other world leaders.[91] This approach was disliked by his external affairs minister,Paul Hasluck, who in his memoirs accused him of believing in "instant diplomacy" and crediting his personal charms for advances made by diplomatic officials.[92] As prime minister, Holt's first overseas trip was to South-East Asia in April 1966, where he visited Malaysia, Singapore, South Vietnam, and Thailand.[93] He toured Cambodia, Laos, South Korea, and Taiwan in March and April 1967, and had planned to visit Burma, India, Indonesia, Japan, and Pakistan in 1968.[94] Most of those countries had never before been visited by an Australian prime minister.[95] There were also a number of reciprocal visits from East Asian leaders, includingEisaku Satō of Japan,Souvanna Phouma of Laos, andThanom Kittikachorn of Thailand.[94] The most controversial of those occurred in January 1967, when Prime MinisterNguyễn Cao Kỳ of South Vietnam visited on Holt's personal invitation – issued without consulting cabinet. Public sentiment was beginning to turn against the war, and Ky's visit was met with large demonstrations; opposition leaderArthur Calwell issued a statement calling him a "miserable little butcher". Ky nonetheless handled himself well, andThe Bulletin called his visit a "personal triumph".[96]
TheVietnam War was the dominant foreign policy issue during Holt's term in office. He was a strong supporter ofAustralian involvement in the war, which had begun in 1962,[91] and accused its critics of adopting a "Lotus Land" attitude.[97] As well as citing Australia'sSEATO obligations toSouth Vietnam, Holt justified the war on the grounds that Australia was morally obligated to "resist communist subversion and aggression" and "defend the right of every people to choose their own social and economic order". He held that "unless there is security for all small nations, there cannot be security for any small nation".[98]
In March 1966, Holt announced that the1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment, would be withdrawn and replaced by the1st Australian Task Force, a self-containedbrigade-sized unit based atNui Dat. This effectively tripled the number of Australian troops in Vietnam to around 4,500, and also included 1,500national servicemen – the first conscripts to serve in the conflict.[99] By the final months of Holt's prime ministership, Australia had over 8,000 personnel stationed in South Vietnam, drawn from all three branches of theAustralian Defence Force; the final troop increase was announced in October 1967.[91] Holt "never deviated from his whole-hearted support for American bombing ofNorth Vietnam and the hope that steadily increasing the number of foreign troops deployed to South Vietnam would lead to military victory and a solution to the crisis".[100]John Gorton later said it was "ironical that, being a man of peace, he should have presided over one of the greatest build-ups of military power that Australia has found itself engaged in".[101]
The government's handling of the war initially enjoyed broad public support, and was considered a key contributor to the landslide election victory in 1966 – referred to by some as a "khaki election".[102] By the end of the following year, however, opinion polls were showing that public sentiment had turned against the war, and previously supportive media outlets had begun to criticised Holt's decision-making.[103] He did not live long enough to see the mass demonstrations experienced by his successors. Political opposition to the war was initially led by Opposition LeaderArthur Calwell, who promised a total withdrawal from the conflict and labelled it a "cruel, unwinnable civil war".[102] His replacement,Gough Whitlam, adopted a more pragmatic approach, focusing on policy specifics (particularly the government's apparent lack of anexit strategy) rather than the validity of the war itself.[104]
Holt cultivated a close relationship with the United States under PresidentLyndon B. Johnson. He believed that "without the American shield most of us who live in Asia and the South Pacific would have a continuing sense of insecurity". Cooperation between the two countries extended beyond the Vietnam War. Holt approved the construction of severalEarth stations for use byNASA and American intelligence agencies, includingPine Gap,Honeysuckle Creek, andTidbinbilla. This made Australia "the most substantial centre for American missile and space operations outside the continental United States".[105]
Holt and Johnson developed a personal friendship. They were the same age, and had first met in 1942, when Johnson visited Melbourne as a naval officer; afterwards they shared a similar career trajectory. Holt visited the U.S. twice while in office, in June and July 1966, and on the latter visit was invited to stay atCamp David. He and Johnson reportedly played tennis, lounged by the pool, and watched movies together.[106][107] In October 1966, Johnson made the first visit to Australia by an incumbent American president; Vice PresidentHubert Humphrey had visited in February of that year.[99] He toured five cities, and was greeted by large crowds as well as a number of anti-war demonstrators, who disrupted the presidential motorcade. The opposition criticised the visit as a publicity stunt.[108] Johnson later returned to Australia for Holt's memorial service, and invited his widowZara to stay with him when she visited the United States in 1969.[106]
On his first visit to the U.S., Holt made what was widely viewed as afaux pas while delivering a ceremonial address at theWhite House. Departing from his prepared remarks, he said: "And so, sir, in the lonelier and perhaps even more disheartening moments which come to any national leader, I hope there will be a corner of your mind and heart which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend, a staunch friend that will beall the way with LBJ."[109] Holt had meant it to be a "light-hearted gesture of goodwill towards a generous host", referencing the slogan used inJohnson's 1964 presidential campaign.[110] It was interpreted as such by his immediate audience, but once it was reported back in Australia it came to be viewed as a "foolish, sycophantic and dangerous statement" that was indicative of Australian subservience.[106]Bill Hayden said Holt's remarks "shocked and insulted many Australians [...] its seeming servility was an embarrassment and a worry".[111] Newspaper editorials generally agreed with Holt's assertion that he had been misinterpreted, but still criticised him for making an error in judgment.[112] His comments intensified anti-war sentiments among those who were already opposed to the war, but had little electoral impact. Nonetheless, "all the way with LBJ" is still remembered as Holt's "best-known utterance".[91]
Holt was a strong supporter of theCommonwealth of Nations, and believed its member states had moral obligations to one another – particularly Britain, as the former "mother country".[113] However, his relationship withHarold Wilson, the British prime minister, was somewhat frosty. He repeatedly lobbied Wilson to maintain a strong British presence "East of Suez", in order to complement American efforts, and in early 1967 received assurances that no reduction was being contemplated.[96] However, by the middle of the year Wilson had announced that Britain intended to close all of its bases in Asia by the early 1970s (except forHong Kong).[114] In response to Holt's concerns, it was suggested by Wilson that a British naval base could be established inCockburn Sound.[115] Holt rejected this outright, and felt that Wilson had deliberately misled him as to his intentions.[116]
Holt's popularity and political standing was damaged by his perceived poor handling of a series of controversies that emerged during 1967. In April, theABC's new nightly current affairs programThis Day Tonight ran a story which criticised the government's decision not to reappoint the Chair of the ABC Board,Sir James Darling. Holt responded rashly, questioning the impartiality of the ABC and implying political bias on the part of journalistMike Willesee (whose fatherDon Willesee was an ALP Senator and future Whitlam government minister), and his statement drew strong protests from both Willesee and theAustralian Journalists' Association.[117]
In May, increasing pressure from the media and within the Liberal Party forced Holt to announce a parliamentary debate on the question of asecond inquiry into the 1964 sinking ofHMAS Voyager to be held on 16 May. The debate included themaiden speech by newly elected NSW Liberal MPEdward St John QC, who used the opportunity to criticise the government's attitude to new evidence about the disaster. An enraged Holt interrupted St John's speech, in defiance of the parliamentary convention that maiden speeches are heard in silence; his blunder embarrassed the government and further undermined Holt's support in the Liberal Party.[118][119] A few days later, Holt announced a newRoyal Commission into the disaster.
In October the government became embroiled in another embarrassing controversy overthe alleged misuse of VIP aircraft, which came to a head whenJohn Gorton (Government Leader in the Senate) tabled documents that showed that Holt had unintentionally misled Parliament in his earlier answers on the matter. Support for his leadership was eroded even further by his refusal to sack the Minister for Air,Peter Howson, in order to defuse the scandal, fuelling criticism from within the party that Holt was "weak" and lacked Menzies' ruthlessness. Much of the blame for the episode within the Public Service was visited upon SirJohn Bunting, Secretary of the Prime Minister's Department, although other figures such as the Deputy SecretaryPeter Lawler were able to protect themselves. One of John Gorton's first acts upon becoming prime minister in January 1968 was to sideline Bunting by creating a separate Department of the Cabinet Office with Bunting as its head, and replaced him withLenox Hewitt.
In November 1967, the government suffered a serious setback in thesenate election, winning just 42.8 per cent of the vote against Labor's 45 per cent. The coalition also lost the seats ofCorio andDawson to Labor in by-elections.Alan Reid says that, within the party, the reversal was blamed on Holt's mishandling of the V.I.P. planes scandal. Disquiet was growing about his leadership style and possible health problems.[5]
Holt loved the ocean, particularlyspearfishing, and had holiday homes atPortsea, Victoria, andBingil Bay, Queensland.[120] On 17 December 1967, while Holt was spending the weekend at Portsea, he and four companions decided to drive toPoint Nepean to watch sailorAlec Rose pass throughThe Rip on his solo circumnavigation attempt. On their way back to Portsea, Holt convinced the group to stop at remoteCheviot Beach for a swim before lunch – he had spearfished there on many previous occasions, and claimed to "know this beach like the back of my hand". Because of the rough conditions, only one other person, Alan Stewart, joined Holt in the water. Stewart kept close to shore, but Holt swam out into deeper water and was seemingly caught up in arip, eventually disappearing from view. One of the witnesses, Marjorie Gillespie, described it as "like a leaf being taken out [...] so quick and final".[121]
Holt's disappearance sparked "one of the largest search operations in Australian history", but no trace of his body was ever found.[122] At 10 p.m. on 18 December, Governor-GeneralLord Casey announced he had terminated Holt's commission as prime minister upon his presumed death.[123] A police report released in early 1968 made no definitive findings about Holt's death, while acoronial inquest in 2005 returned a verdict of accidental drowning. It is generally accepted that Holt overestimated his swimming ability.[124] Some have alleged that Holt committedsuicide, but those close to him rejected this as uncharacteristic of his personality.[125] Conspiracy theories have included suggestions that Holtfaked his own death, was assassinated by theCIA, orwas collected by a submarine so that he could defect to China.[126]
A memorial service for Holt was held atSt Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne, on 22 December, and attended by numerous world leaders.[127] Aged 59 at the time of his death, Holt became the third Australian prime minister to die in office, afterJoseph Lyons (1939) andJohn Curtin (1945).John McEwen, the leader of theCountry Party, was sworn in as caretaker prime minister on 19 December.[128] The Liberal Party helda leadership election on 9 January 1968, in whichJohn Gorton defeatedPaul Hasluck,Billy Snedden, andLes Bury. Gorton was a member of theSenate, and in line withconstitutional convention sought and gained election to the House of Representatives atthe by-election caused by Holt's death.[129]
While at university, Holt metZara Dickins, the daughter of a Melbourne businessman; there was an "instant mutual attraction". They made plans to marry once Holt had graduated, but after a financial dispute chose to separate.[4] Zara went on a trip to Britain, where she was introduced to James Fell, aBritish Indian Army officer. She accompanied Fell to India, and then in early 1935 returned to Australia where Holt again proposed marriage. She declined his offer, and married Fell a short time later, going to live with him inJabalpur. Holt had entered parliament by that time, and was soon being profiled as "the most eligible bachelor in parliament". He briefly dated Lola Thring, the daughter of his father's business partner,F. W. Thring, but his widowed father Tom was also interested in her (to his son's "disgust"). Tom Holt married Lola in 1936, and their daughter Frances (Harold's half-sister) was born in 1940; Tom Holt died in 1945.[130]
In 1937, Zara returned to Australia to give birth to her first child, Nicholas. She had two more children, twins Sam and Andrew, in 1939. Her marriage with Fell broke down a short time later, and in late 1940 she returned to Australia permanently and resumed a relationship with Holt. Their relationship did not become public for some time, in order to avoid Holt's being implicated in Zara's divorce proceedings.[131] They eventually married on 8 October 1946, at Zara's parents' home on St Georges Road,Toorak.[132] They initially lived on nearby Washington Street, but in 1954 bought the St Georges Road house.[133] Holt legally adopted Zara's three children, and as young men they changed their surname to his.[134] According to biographerTom Frame, it was an "open secret" that Holt was the biological father of the twins, as they shared his physical appearance and had been conceived at a time when Zara was known to have been in Melbourne.[131]
Zara Holt was a successful businesswoman, owning a chain of dress shops, and out-earned her husband even as prime minister. It was her success that allowed the couple to purchase two holiday homes, one atPortsea, Victoria, and the other atBingil Bay, Queensland.[135] She nonetheless made sacrifices for her husband's political career, accompanying him on all but one of his overseas trips, which could last for weeks.[j]
After her husband's death, Zara remarried in 1969 to one of his Liberal Party colleagues,Jeff Bate.[137] She was widowed a second time in 1984, and died in 1989. In a 1988 interview withThe Sydney Morning Herald, Zara stated that her husband Harold had carried on "dozens" of extramarital affairs.[138] In his biography of Holt, Tom Frame wrote: "I have not included the names of women with whom Holt allegedly had a sexual relationship because I was unable to confirm or deny that most of these relationships took place […] by their very nature they were always illicit and Holt was very discreet."[139]
Holt was the first Australian Prime Minister born in the twentieth century. He was an enthusiastic sportsman and avid swimmer, in stark contrast to Menzies and the majority of his predecessors and colleagues. Like later successorBob Hawke, this resonated with positive effect within the electorate. His oratory skills were vastly superior to that ofArthur Calwell, whom Holt resoundingly beat in 1966. Holt's rhetoric was, however, considered a match to that of new Labor leaderGough Whitlam. Whitlam himself later said of Holt:
(his) ability to establish relationships with men of different backgrounds, attitudes and interests was his essential decency. He was tolerant, humane and broadminded. His suavity of manner was no pose. It was the outward reflection of a truly civilised human being. He was in a very real sense a gentleman.[140][141][142]
— Gough Whitlam, Leader of the Opposition, March 1968
Holt has been described as an "apathetic agnostic". He was baptisedAnglican, attendedMethodist schools, and married withPresbyterian forms,[clarification needed] but neither he nor his wife had any interest in religion.[143] His lack of religiosity apparently had little impact on his political prospects, and was not generally remarked upon.[144]Alick Downer believed that Holt's thoughts "lay in this world not the next".[145] According to his friendSimon Warrender, he "was an agnostic whoseraison d'être was dedication to his career".[146] Holt had a reputation as something of afatalist, and frequently quoted fromAndrew Marvell'scarpe diem poem "To His Coy Mistress".[147] He was also fond ofRudyard Kipling's poem "If—", which Warrender said he used as a "guiding light in his political and private life".[146]
Harold Holt is commemorated by theHarold Holt Memorial Swimming Centre[148] in the Melbourne suburb of Glen Iris. The complex was under construction at the time of Holt's disappearance, and since he was the local member, it was named in his memory. The irony of commemorating a man who is presumed to have drowned with a swimming pool has been a source of wry amusement for many Australians.[149] The swimming pool within the1st Australian Support Compound in South Vietnam was also named for him.[150]
In 1968, the newly commissionedUnited States NavyKnox-class destroyer escortUSS Harold E. Holt was named in his honour. It was launched by Holt's widow Dame Zara at theTodd Shipyards in Los Angeles on 3 May 1969, and was the first American warship to bear the name of a foreign leader.
In 1969, a plaque commemorating Holt was bolted to the seafloor off Cheviot Beach after a memorial ceremony. It bears the inscription:
In memory of Harold Holt, Prime Minister of Australia, who loved the sea and disappeared hereabouts on 17 December 1967.
Other memorials include:
By way of a folk memorial, he is recalled in theAustralian vernacular expression "do a Harold Holt" (or "do the Harry"),rhyming slang for "do a bolt" meaning "to disappear suddenly and without explanation", although this is usually employed in the context of disappearance from a social gathering rather than a case of presumed death.[151]
In the Queen's Birthday Honours of June 1968, Holt's widow Zara was made a Dame Commander of theOrder of the British Empire, becoming Dame Zara Holt DBE.[152] She later married for a third time, to a Liberal party colleague of Holt's,Jeff Bate, and was then known as Dame Zara Bate.
The mineralholtite is named in his honor. It was discovered in Greenbushes Tinfield, Western Australia and formally described in 1971.[153][154]
| Parliament of Australia | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by | Member for Fawkner 1935–1949 | Succeeded by |
| New division | Member for Higgins 1949–1967 | Succeeded by |
| Political offices | ||
| New title | Minister for Labour and National Service 1940–1941 | Succeeded by |
| Preceded by | Minister in charge of Scientific and Industrial Research 1940–1941 | Succeeded by |
| Preceded by | Minister for Immigration 1949–1956 | Succeeded by |
| Preceded by | Minister for Labour and National Service 1949–1958 | Succeeded by |
| Preceded by | Treasurer of Australia 1958–1966 | |
| Preceded by | Prime Minister of Australia 1966–1967 | Succeeded by |
| Party political offices | ||
| Preceded by | Deputy Leader of the Liberal Party of Australia 1956–1966 | Succeeded by |
| Preceded by | Leader of the Liberal Party of Australia 1966–1967 | Succeeded by |
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
| People | |
| Other | |
