Han-Zhao Former Zhao 漢 (304–319) 趙 (319–329) | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 304–329 | |||||||||
.jpg) Han-Zhao before split,c. 317, northern China | |||||||||
.jpg) Han-Zhao (Former Zhao) after split,c. 326 | |||||||||
| Capital | Lishi (304–305) Liting (305–308) Puzi (308–309) Pingyang (309–318) Chang'an (318–329) Shanggui (329) | ||||||||
| Religion | Tengriism,Buddhism | ||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
| Emperor | |||||||||
• 304–310 | Liu Yuan | ||||||||
• 310 | Liu He | ||||||||
• 310–318 | Liu Cong | ||||||||
• 318 | Liu Can | ||||||||
• 318–329 | Liu Yao | ||||||||
• 329 | Liu Xi | ||||||||
| History | |||||||||
• Established | 304 | ||||||||
• Liu Yuan's claim of imperial title | 2 November 308[1][2] | ||||||||
• Name change from Han to Zhao | 319 | ||||||||
| 21 January 329[3][4] | |||||||||
• Disestablished | 329 | ||||||||
| Area | |||||||||
| 316[5] | 2,000,000 km2 (770,000 sq mi) | ||||||||
| |||||||||
| Today part of | China | ||||||||
TheHan-Zhao (simplified Chinese:汉赵;traditional Chinese:漢趙;pinyin:Hàn Zhào; 304–329 AD), orFormer Zhao (simplified Chinese:前赵;traditional Chinese:前趙;pinyin:Qián Zhào), was adynastic state of China ruled by the Liu (Luandi/Chuge) clan ofXiongnu ethnicity during theSixteen Kingdoms period of Chinese history.[6] In Chinese historiography, it was given two conditional state titles, theNorthern Han (北漢;Běi Hàn) for the state proclaimed in 304 byLiu Yuan, and theFormer Zhao (前趙;Qián Zhào) for the state proclaimed in 319 byLiu Yao. The reference to them as separate states should be considered misleading, given that when Liu Yao changed the name of the state from “Han” to “Zhao” in 319, he treated the state as having been continuous from the time that Liu Yuan founded it in 304; instead, he de-established his imperial lineage from theHan dynasty and claimed ancestry directly fromModu Chanyu.
The reason it is also referred to as "Former Zhao" in historiography is to distinguish it from thesimilarly-named dynasty founded byShi Le in 319, which was also known officially as "Zhao" (labeled "Later Zhao" in Chinese historiography). Since both the Former Zhao and Northern Han were ruled by the same family, the Chinese scholars often conditionally combined them into a single Han-Zhao regime. Numerous Western texts refer to the two states separately; others referred to the Han state as the “Northern Han”, a confusing nomenclature given that the term also refers to theNorthern Han state of the laterFive Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.
During the Han period, the capital was frequently shifted aroundShanxi before finally settling inPingyang. The Han was a driving force during theupheaval of the Five Barbarians, as they brought theDisaster of Yongjia and demise of theWestern Jin dynasty by 317. At the height of its power, the Han ruled Shanxi,Shaanxi, easternGansu, and large parts ofShandong,Hebei, andHenan. AfterJin Zhun's coup in 318, the empire, which renamed itself to (Former) Zhao in 319, was split into two betweenLiu Yao and the warlord,Shi Le. Liu Yao moved the capital to the west inChang'an, retaining Shaanxi and eastern Gansu, while the eastern portion of the empire fell to Shi Le'sLater Zhao dynasty.
Following the break-up of theXiongnu Empire in the 1st century, the Southern Xiongnu branch surrendered to the Han dynasty and were resettled into the northern border commanderies. Under their chanyu, the Southern Xiongnu acted as a Han vassal state, providing assistance in defending the frontiers from nomadic forces. They settled down and fully took up agriculture, but kept a few aspects of their former nomadic lifestyle such ashorse breeding. Relations with the Han were often times unstable as poor living conditions on the borders and the Chinese court meddling in their politics led to several rebellions. In 188, just as the Han was about to fall into political turmoil, the Southern Xiongnu also collapsed after dissenters within their ranks, allied with the rebellingXiuchuge people, expelled their Han-backed chanyu and dissolved his government.[7]: 14–15
In 216, after the warlord,Cao Cao unified northern China, he had the exiled chanyu,Huchuquan detained as an honoured prisoner atYe. He then reorganized what remained of the Southern Xiongnu into the Five Divisions (五部) aroundTaiyuan Commandery inBing province. Each division was led by a commander, who were nobles from the tribes and were in turn supervised by a Chinese marshal. Huchuquan's uncle,Qubei was also sent to oversee the Five Divisions, but after his death, his position was left vacant. No new chanyu was proclaimed after Huchuquan died, and the Five Divisions remained subservient to theCao Wei dynasty.
During theJiaping era (249–254), the Five Divisions became a concern for the Chinese court as the Commander of the Left Division,Liu Bao unified them and was mobilizing a great army. The Wei and later theWestern Jin intervened, gradually forcing them back into five. Five Divisions nobility had to send their children as hostages to the capital,Luoyang, including Liu Bao's son,Liu Yuan.Sinicization was evident among the elites; Liu Yuan became proficient in theConfucianist classics and befriended members of the Chinese aristocracy such as theWang clan of Taiyuan. He was even considered for the post of the Jin forces commander for theconquest of Eastern Wu but was later dismissed because of his ethnicity.
Nonetheless, among the Five Divisions, a sense of separate identity from the Chinese was retained. Discontent towards Jin rule and of their subordinate position prompted them to seek an independent or self-governing entity. As one of the elites,Liu Xuan, adequately puts it:
“In the past, our ancestors and those of the Han acted like brothers through joy and sorrow. However, since the fall of Han and the rise of Wei and Jin, our titles of chanyus hold no value, and we have not gained a foot of land since. Although we have been bestowed with many noble ranks, ourhouseholds are all equally low."
After Liu Bao's death, Liu Yuan returned to the Five Divisions and inherited his position. Liu Yuan's lineage is debated by scholars. The traditional view states that he was the grandson of the penultimate chanyu,Yufuluo, and thus a direct descendant of the imperialLuandi clan. However, some modern historians have challenged this claim, pointing out discrepancies within the records. In fact, Liu Yuan and his family were referred to in several passages asChuge, also known as the Xiuchuge people that overthrew the Southern Xiongnu chanyu in 188. These historians speculate that Liu Yuan had fabricated his lineage to the chanyu for legitimacy when he rebelled.[8][9]
The Five Divisions and other non-affiliatedhu tribes in Bing began staging revolts against Jin. Their close proximity to the Chinese heartland worried a few ministers within the court, who unsuccessfully pushed for their resettlement outside the frontiers. Developments in theWar of the Eight Princes finally favored the Five Divisions, as infighting between the Jin princes over control ofEmperor Hui led to civil wars and widespread famines in northern China. In 304, the Five Divisions elites contacted Liu Yuan, who was serving as a general under the Prince of Chengdu,Sima Ying atYe, and offered him to become their rebellion's leader. Liu Yuan agreed and took advantage of a commission from the desperate Sima Ying who was just being driven out of his base to gather 50,000 warriors. AtLishi, Liu Yuan declared himself the Grand Chanyu.
Later that year, Liu Yuan proclaimed himself the "King of Han," the same first title used byEmperor Gaozu of Han. As a descendant of the chanyu, Liu Yuan also claimed descent from theHan dynasty, as the chanyus used to marry Han princesses through marriage alliances or heqin. By portraying his state as a restoration of the Han, Liu Yuan was able to establish his legitimacy and potentially win over support from the Han Chinese. Liu Yuan honored the emperors of Western, Eastern andShu Han, and in 308, he elevated himself to Emperor of Han.
Anti-Jin sentiment grew as the civil wars continued, leading to more rebellions on theNorth China Plain. To bolster their numbers, Liu Yuan welcomed these rebels to join his ranks regardless of their ethnicity, such as the Chinese bandit,Wang Mi and theJie former slave,Shi Le. To ensure their loyalty, they were given high ranks and full command over their armies, but this practice also meant that they were also essentially warlords as the Han court had no actual means to restrain them. In 308, the Han conquered Pingyang Commandery, where they shifted their capital to Puzi (蒲子, in modernLinfen,Shanxi) and then to Pingyang city (平陽, also in modern Linfen), pressuring the Jin as they brought themselves closer to Luoyang.
Liu Yuan died in 310 and was succeeded by his sonLiu He. A week into his reign, He attempted to purge all his brothers before one of them,Liu Cong retaliated and killed him. After his offer to his half-brother,Liu Ai was rejected, Liu Cong took the throne for himself while still appointing Ai as his Crown Prince. He then intensified his attack on Luoyang, which had been left exposed by the departure of the Jin imperial army and a deadly famine. In 311, Shi Le annihilated the Jin imperial army at theBattle of Ningping, depriving Jin of its main force in the north. Han forces led byWang Mi,Huyan Yan andLiu Yao then descended upon Luoyang, capturing the defenseless city and Emperor Huai in an event known as theDisaster of Yongjia.
Despite the symbolic victory, Jin forces continued to resist in northern China, withEmperor Min being installed atChang'an in 312. More concerning was Shi Le gaining control of a significant part of the eastern empire after assassinating his fellow warlord, Wang Mi and absorbing his army. Liu Cong, fearing that Shi Le may outright rebel, did not punish him, while Wang Mi's subordinate,Cao Ni continued to hold on to theShandong region. In the west, Liu Cong heavily entrusted his cousin, Liu Yao, to lead the war against Emperor Min. After several years of campaigning, Liu Yao captured Chang'an in 316, ending the Western Jin dynasty. Both Emperor Huai and Min suffered similar fates; they were forced to serve as cupbearers for Liu Cong before they were executed out of fear they would rebel. After Emperor Min's capture, the imperial Sima family reestablished itself as theEastern Jin dynasty in 318 atJiankang, south of theYangtze river.
Within the Han court, Liu Cong also faced strong dissidence from his own ministers. Records depict him as a hedonistic ruler with a violent temperament, but restrained himself under pressure from his officials during his early reign. In his later reign, he had the unusual practice of havingthree empresses at a time, and he entrusted political affairs to hiseunuchs andconsort kins, which severely divided the court. He also began empowering his eldest son,Liu Can, threatening Liu Ai's position as Crown Prince. This power struggle culminated in a brutal purge in 317 orchestrated by Liu Can and Liu Cong's consort kins which saw Liu Ai and several prominent ministers executed.
After Liu Cong's death in 318, his successor, Liu Can and the rest of the imperial family in Pingyang were massacred in a coup by a powerful consort kin,Jin Zhun. Jin Zhun declared himselfHeavenly King of Han and invited the Eastern Jin court to assist him, but was ignored. Meanwhile, both Liu Yao and Shi Le combined their forces to oppose Jin Zhun. During the campaign, Liu Yao was acclaimed the new emperor by surviving Han officials fleeing from Pingyang. The rebellion was quickly defeated by the alliance, and Jin Zhun and his family were all killed.
With the rebellion crushed, tension arose between Liu Yao and Shi Le. As Shi Le had cultivated a powerful base on the North China Plain, Liu Yao was convinced that he would take advantage of Han's vulnerability to launch a surprise rebellion. When Shi Le sent his envoy to congratulate him, Liu Yao had the envoy executed, which prompted Shi Le to declare independence. The empire was thus divided into two, with Liu Yao controlling the west and Shi Le controlling the east. As Pingyang had been devastated by the rebellion, Liu Yao shifted the capital to his base in Chang'an.
Unlike his predecessors, Liu Yao distanced the state away from the framing of Han restoration and appealed more to his Xiongnu ancestry. He renamed the state to Zhao (since one of Liu Yao's previous title was Prince ofZhongshan, and Zhongshan was in the ancient state ofZhao), and honoured his ancestor,Modu Chanyu, but still saw his state as a continuation of Liu Yuan's Han. Soon after, Shi Le also named his state Zhao, leading to historiographers to distinguish the two states as Former Zhao and Later Zhao.
In his early reign, Liu Yao expanded westwards while Shi Le dealt with his own matters in the east. InLongxi, he defeated the forces ofSima Bao, the last claimant to the Jin throne in the north, and later survived a major tribal rebellion by theDi andQiang, leading to the relocation of nearly 200,000 of their people to Chang'an. Liu Yao then defeatedChen An, a warlord in Longxi who nominally submitted to Former Zhao, before going on to force theFormer Liang into submission and invadingChouchi by 323. At its prime, the Former Zhao's army reportedly numbered at around 285,000 strong. Despite the state's new positioning, Liu Yao maintained interest in integrating with Chinese culture, as evident by his opening of anImperial University in Chang'an taught byConfucian scholars.
War between the two Zhaos eventually broke out in 324, and in 328, Liu Yao led his forces to secure theHenan region from Later Zhao. Liu Yao and Shi Le's forces came head to head at theBattle of Luoyang, and during the battle, Liu Yao, supposedly drunk, fell off his horse during a retreat and was captured by Later Zhao soldiers. He was then executed as his Crown Prince,Liu Xi, hastily succeeded him in Chang'an. In 329, Liu Xi was driven out of his capital and finally killed atShanggui by Later Zhao forces. The Han-Zhao dynasty was at its end, and the Later Zhao would rule most of northern China for the next 20 years.
When Liu Yuan established the Han, he retained most of the imperial Chinese government offices such as Grand Marshal, Minister of Works and Minister Over the Masses while introducing a few Xiongnu-influenced offices, most notably the Grand Chanyu. The Grand Chanyu was second to the emperor, tasked with managing the non-Chinese tribes and was usually deferred to the heir apparent.
In 314, while reorganizing the government, Liu Cong introduced a dual administrative system between the Han Chinese and non-Chinese people that would later be adopted by some of the Sixteen Kingdoms. He created the offices of the Left and Right Director of Retainers to manage the 200,000 Chinese households along with the Left and Right Assistant Chanyu to govern the 100,000 tribes, who were collectively known as the "SixYi" or "Six Barbarians" (六夷). Modern scholars have noted that the Xiongnu, specifically from the Five Divisions and Chuge branches, were not included in the "Six Yi", and were instead administrated as part of the Han Chinese.[10][11]
| Temple name | Posthumous name | Personal Name | Duration of reign | Era names |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Han 304–319 | ||||
| Gaozu | Guangwen | Liu Yuan | 304–310 | Yuanxi (元熙) 304–308 |
| – | Liu He | 7 days in 310 | None | |
| Liezong | Zhaowu | Liu Cong | 310–318 | Guangxing (光興) 310–311 |
| – | Yin | Liu Can | a month and days in 318 | Hanchang (漢昌) 318 |
| Former Zhao 319–329 | ||||
| – | Liu Yao | 318–329 | Guangchu (光初) 318–329 | |
| – | Liu Xi | 329 | None | |
Note: Liu Xi was Liu Yao'scrown prince who was thrust into the leadership role when Liu Yao was captured byLater Zhao's emperorShi Le, but he never took the imperial title.
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