"Han people" redirects here. For citizens and residents of China, seeChinese people. For the homophonic Han people of Korea, seeKoreans. For the Alaskan people, seeHän.
TheHan Chinese, alternatively theHan people[a] or theChinese people,[18] are anEast Asian ethnic group native toGreater China.[19] With a global population of over 1.4 billion, the Han Chinese are theworld's largest ethnic group, making up about 17.5% of theworld population. The Han Chinese represent 91.11% of the population inChina and 97% of the population inTaiwan.[20][21] Han Chinese are also a significantdiasporic group in Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. In Singapore, people of some form of Chinese descent make up around 75% of the country's population.[22]
The Han Chinese have exerted a primary formative influence in the development and growth of Chinese civilization.[23][24][25] Originating fromZhongyuan, the Han Chinese trace their ancestry to theHuaxia people, a confederation of agricultural tribes that lived along the middle and lower reaches of theYellow River[26][27][28][29] in the north central plains of China. The Huaxia are the progenitors of Chinese civilization and ancestors of the modern Han Chinese.[30][31]
Han Chinese people and culture later spread southwards in the Chinese mainland, driven by large and sustained waves of migration during successive periods of Chinese history, for example theQin (221–206 BC) andHan (202 BC – 220 AD) dynasties, leading to a demographic and economic tilt towards the south, and the absorption of variousnon-Han ethnic groups over the centuries at various points in Chinese history.[28][32][33] The Han Chinese became the main inhabitants of the fertile lowland areas and cities of Southern China by the time of the Tang and Song dynasties,[34] with minority tribes occupying the highlands.
Girl wearingruqun, one of the most distinctive set of attire of femalehanfuMan wearingdaopao, one of the most distinctive set of attire of malehanfu
The term "Han" not only refers to a specific ethnic collective, but also points to a shared ancestry, history, and culturalidentity. The term "Huaxia" was used by the ancient Chinese philosopherConfucius's contemporaries during theWarring States period to elucidate the shared ethnicity of all Chinese;[35] Chinese people called themselvesHua ren.[36] The Warring States period led to the emergence of the Zhou-era Chinese referring to themselves as being Huaxia (literally 'the beautiful grandeur'): under theHua–Yi distinction, a "Hua" culture (often translated as 'civilized') was contrasted to that of peoples perceived as "Yi" (often translated as 'barbarian') living on the peripheries of the Zhou kingdoms.[37][28][38][39]Overseas Chinese who possess non-Chinese citizenship are commonly referred as "Hua people" (华人;華人;Huárén) orHuazu (华族;華族;Huázú). The two respective aforementioned terms are applied solely to those with a Han background that is semantically distinct fromZhongguo ren (中国人;中國人) which has connotations and implications limited to beingcitizens andnationals of China, especially with regard toethnic minorities in China.[40][41][24]
The name "Han people" (漢人;汉人;Hànrén) first appeared during theNorthern and Southern period and was inspired by theHan dynasty, which is considered to be one of the firstgolden ages in Chinese history. As a unified and cohesive empire that succeeded the short-lived Qin dynasty, Han China established itself as the center of the East Asian geopolitical order at the time, projecting its power and influence unto Asian neighbors. It was comparable with the contemporaryRoman Empire in population size, geographical extent, and cultural reach.[42][43][44] The Han dynasty's prestige and prominence led many of the ancient Huaxia to identify themselves as 'Han people'.[37][45][46][47][48][49] Similarly, theChinese language also came to be named and alluded to as the "Han language" (漢語;汉语;Hànyǔ) ever since and the Chinese script is referred to as "Han characters".[43][50][47]
The word "Han" (漢/汉) in its original poetic meaning found in ancient Chinese works such as theClassic of Poetry, refers to the "Milky Way."[b]
Prior to the Han dynasty, Chinese scholars used the termHuaxia (華夏;华夏) in texts to describeChina proper, while the Chinese populace were referred to as either the 'various Hua' (諸華;诸华;Zhūhuá) or 'various Xia' (诸夏;諸夏;Zhūxià). This gave rise to two term commonly used nowadays byOverseas Chinese as an ethnic identity for the Chinese diaspora –Huaren (華人;华人;Huárén; 'ethnic Chinese people') andHuaqiao (华侨;華僑;Huáqiáo; 'the Chinese immigrant'), meaningOverseas Chinese.[24] It has also given rise to the literaryname for China –Zhonghua (中華;中华;Zhōnghuá).[25] While the general termZhongguo ren (中國人;中国人) refers to anyChinese citizen orChinese national regardless of their ethnic origins and does not necessary imply Han ancestry, the termhuaren in its narrow, classical usages implies Central Plains or Han ancestry.[41]
Among some Southern Han Chinese varieties such asCantonese,Hakka andMinnan, the termTangren (唐人;Tángrén; 'people of Tang'), derived from the name of the laterTang dynasty (618–907) that oversaw what is regarded as anothergolden age of China. The self-identification asTangren is popular in south China, because it was at this time that massive waves of migration and settlement led to a shift in the center of gravity of the Chinese nation away from the tumult of the Central Plains to the peaceful lands south of the Yangtze and on the southeastern coast, leading to the earnest settlement by Chinese of lands hitherto regarded as part of the empire's sparsely populated frontier or periphery. Guangdong and Fujian, hitherto regarded as backwater regions, were populated by the descendants of garrison soldiers, exiles and refugees, became new centers and representatives of Han Chinese culture under the influence of the new Han migrants. The term is used in everyday colloquial discourse and is also an element in one of the words forChinatown: 'streets of Tang people' (唐人街;Tángrénjiē;Tong4 jan4 gaai1).[52] The phraseHuábù (華埠;华埠) is also used to refer to Chinatowns.
The termZhonghua minzu, literally the 'Chinese nation', currently used as a supra-ethnic concept publicised first by the Republic of China, then by the People's Republic of China, was historically used specifically to refer to the Han Chinese. In his article "Observations on the Chinese ethnic groups in History",Liang Qichao, who coined the termZhonghua minzu, wrote "the present-dayZhonghua minzu refers to what is commonly known as the Han Chinese".[c][53] It was only after the founding of the Society for the National Great Unity of the Republic of China[d] in 1912 that the term began to officially include ethnic minorities from all regions in China.[54][55]
Han Chinese can be divided into various subgroups based on the variety of Chinese that they speak.[56][57] Waves of migration have occurred throughout China's long history and vast geographical expanse, engendering the emergence of Han Chinese subgroups found throughout the various regions of modern China today with distinct regional features.[56][57][58][59][60]
The expansion of the Han people outside their linguistic homeland in the Yellow River is an important part of their historical consciousness and ethnogenesis, and accounts for their present-day diversity.
There were several periods of mass migration of Han people to Southeastern and Southern China throughout history.[58] Initially, the sparsely populated regions of south China were inhabited by tribes known only as the Bai Yue or Hundred Yue. Many of these tribes developed into kingdoms under rulers and nobility of Han Chinese ethnicity but retained a Bai Yue majority for several centuries. Yet others were forcibly brought into the Sinosphere by the imperial ambitions of emperors such as Qin Shi Huangdi and Han Wu Di, both of whom settled hundreds of thousands of Chinese in these lands to form agricultural colonies and military garrisons. Even then, control over these lands was tenuous, and Bai Yue cultural identity remained strong until sustained waves of Han Chinese emigration in the Jin, Tang and Song dynasties altered the demographic balance completely.[61][62]
Distribution of Chinese languages in ChinaDistribution of Mandarin dialects in China
Chinese language (or Chinese languages) can be divided to 10 primary dialects (or languages).[63]
The first emperorQin Shi Huang is said to have sent several hundred thousand men and fifteen thousand women to form agricultural and military settlements inLingnan (present dayGuangxi and Guangdong), under the leadership of a general named Zhao Tuo. The famous Han emperor, Han Wu Di, ordered another two hundred thousand men to build ships to attack and colonialize the Lingnan region, thus adding to the population in Guangdong and Guangxi. The first urban conurbations in the region, for example, Panyu, were created by Han settlers rather than the Bai Yue, who preferred to maintain small settlements subsisting on swidden agriculture and rice farming. Later on, Guangdong, northern Vietnam, and Yunnan all experienced a surge in Han Chinese migrants duringWang Mang's reign.[58] The demographic composition and culture of these regions during this period, could however scarcely be said to have been Sinitic outside the confines of these agricultural settlements and military outposts.[citation needed]
The genesis of the modern Han people and their subgroups cannot be understood apart from their historical migrations to the south, resulting in a depopulation of the Central Plains, a fission between those that remained and those that headed south, and their subsequent fusion with aboriginal tribes south of the Yangtze, even as the centres of Han Chinese culture and wealth moved from the Yellow River Basin to Jiangnan, and to a lesser extent also, to Fujian and Guangdong.[citation needed]
At various points in Chinese history, collapses of central authority in the face of barbarian uprisings or invasions and the loss of control of the Chinese heartland triggered mass migratory waves which transformed the demographic composition and cultural identity of the south. This process of sustained mass migration has been known as "garments and headdresses moving south" 衣冠南渡 (yì guān nán dù), on account of it first being led by the aristocratic classes.[70][34][71]
Such migratory waves were numerous and triggered by such events such as theUprising of the Five Barbarians during the Jin dynasty (304–316 AD) in which China was completely overrun by minority groups previously serving as vassals and servants to Sima (the royal house of Jin), theAn Lu Shan rebellion during the Tang dynasty (755–763 AD), and theJingkang incident (1127 AD) andJin-Song wars. These events caused widespread devastation, and even depopulated the north, resulting in the complete social and political breakdown and collapse of central authority in the Central Plains, triggering massive, sustained waves of Han Chinese migration into South China,[72][73] leading to the formation of distinct Han lineages,[74] who also likely assimilated the by-now partially sinicized Bai Yue in their midst.
Modern Han Chinese subgroups, such as theCantonese, theHakka, theHenghua, theHainanese, theHoklo peoples, theGan, theXiang, theWu-speaking peoples, all claim Han Chinese ancestry pointing to official histories and their own genealogical records to support such claims.[34][71][75][76] Linguists hypothesize that proto- Wu and Min varieties of Chinese may have originated from the time ofJin,[77] while the proto- Yue and Hakka varieties perhaps from theTang andSong, about half-a-millennium later.[78] The presence ofTai-Kradai substrates in these dialects may have been due to the assimilation of the remaining groups of Bai Yue, integrating these lands into the Sinosphere proper.
Major nomadic groups involved in the Uprising of the Five Barbarians
The chaos of theUprising of the Five Barbarians triggered the first massive movement of Han Chinese dominated by civilians rather than soldiers to the south, being led principally by the aristocracy and the Jin elite. Thus, Jiangnan, comprising Hangzhou's coastal regions and the Yangtze valley were settled in the 4th century AD by families descended from Chinese nobility.[58][79] Special "commanderies of immigrants" and "white registers" were created for the massive number of Han Chinese immigrating during this period[58] which included notable families such as the Wang and the Xie.[80] A religious group known as theCelestial Masters contributed to the movement. Jiangnan became the most populous and prosperous region of China.[81][82]
TheUprising of the Five Barbarians, also led to the resettlement of Fujian. The province of Fujian - whose aboriginal inhabitants had been deported to the Central Plains by Han Wu Di, was now repopulated by Han Chinese settlers and colonists from the Chinese heartland. The "Eight Great Surnames" were eight noble families who migrated from the Central Plains to Fujian - these were the Hu, He, Qiu, Dan, Zheng, Huang, Chen and Lin clans, who remain there until this very day.[83][84][85][86]
Guo Ziyi, who quelled the An Lushan rebellion, which caused a fall in recorded numbers of Tang inhabitants from 53 million to 17 million people
In the wake of theAn Lushan rebellion, a further wave of Han migrants from northern China headed the south.[60][72][34][71][87] At the start of the rebellion in 755 there were 52.9 million registered inhabitants of the Tang Empire, and after its end in 764, only 16.9 million were recorded.[citation needed] It is likely that the difference in census figures was due to the complete breakdown in administrative capabilities, as well as the widespread escape from the north by the Han Chinese and their mass migration to the south.[citation needed]
By now, the Han Chinese population in the south far outstripped that of the Bai Yue. Guangdong and Fujian both experienced a significant influx of Northern Han Chinese settlers, leading many Cantonese, Hokkien and Teochew individuals to identify themselves asTangren, which has served as a means to assert and acknowledge their ethnic and cultural origin and identity.[88]
Yue Fei, who was a general of the Song dynasty against the Jurchen (Jin) invasion, is considered a Chinese national hero and is often worshipped alongsideGuan Yu inmartial temples.The Jin–Song wars resulted in the devastation of Northern China and the displacement of more Han Chinese to Southern China
TheJin–Song Wars caused yet another wave of mass migration of the Han Chinese from Northern China to Southern China,[34][71] leading to a further increase in the Han Chinese population across southern Chinese provinces. The formation of the Hainanese and Hakka people can be attributed to the chaos of this period.
TheMongol conquest of China during the thirteenth century once again caused a surging influx of Northern Han Chinese refugees to move south to settle and develop thePearl River Delta.[89][90][91][92][93][94] These mass migrations over the centuries inevitably led to the demographic expansion, economic prosperity, agricultural advancements, and cultural flourishing of Southern China, which remained relatively peaceful unlike its northern counterpart.[95][96][97][98][99][100][101][excessive citations]
The vast majority of Han Chinese – over 1.2 billion – live in thePeople's Republic of China (PRC), where they constitute about 90% of its overall population.[102] Han Chinese in China have been a culturally, economically and politically dominant majority vis-à-vis the non-Han minorities throughout most of China's recorded history.[103][104] Han Chinese are almost the majority in everyChinese province, municipality and autonomous region except for the autonomous regions ofXinjiang (38% or 40% in 2010) andTibet Autonomous Region (8% in 2014), whereUighurs andTibetans are the majority, respectively.
Han Chinese also constitute the majority in both of thespecial administrative regions of the PRC.[105][106][failed verification] The Han Chinese in Hong Kong and Macau have been culturally, economically and politically dominant majority vis-à-vis the non-Han minorities.[104][107]
There are over 22 million people of Han Chinese ancestry in living in Taiwan.[108] At first, these migrants chose to settle in locations that bore a resemblance to the areas they had left behind in China, regardless of whether they arrived in the north or south of Taiwan.[citation needed]Hoklo immigrants fromQuanzhou settled in coastal regions and those fromZhangzhou tended to gather on inland plains, while theHakka inhabited hilly areas.
Clashes and tensions between the two groups over land, water, ethno-racial,[dubious –discuss] and cultural differences led to the relocation of some communities and over time, varying degrees of intermarriage and assimilation took place. In Taiwan, Han Chinese (including both the earlier Han Taiwanese settlers and the recent Chinese that arrived in Taiwan with Chiang Kai-shek in 1949) constitute over 95% of the population. They have also been a politically, culturally and economically dominant majority vis-à-vis the non-Hanindigenous Taiwanese peoples.[107][104]
Nearly 30 to 40 million people of Han Chinese descent live in Southeast Asia.[109] According to apopulation genetic study,Singapore is "the country with the biggest proportion of Han Chinese" in Southeast Asia.[110] Singapore is the only nation in the world where Overseas Chinese constitute a majority of the population and remain the country's cultural, economic and politically dominant arbiters vis-à-vis their non-Han minority counterparts.[107][111][104] Up until the past few decades, overseas Han communities originated predominantly from areas in Eastern and Southeastern China (mainly from the provinces ofFujian,Guangdong andHainan, and to a lesser extent,Guangxi,Yunnan andZhejiang).[110]
There are 60 million Overseas Chinese people worldwide.[112][113][114] Overseas Han Chinese have settled in numerous countries across the globe, particularly within the Western World where nearly 4 million people of Han Chinese descent live in the United States (about 1.5% of the population),[115] over 1 million in Australia (5.6%)[15][failed verification] and about 1.5 million in Canada (5.1%),[116][117][failed verification] nearly 231,000 inNew Zealand (4.9%),[118][failed verification] and as many as 750,000 in Sub-Saharan Africa.[119]
The Han Chinese people have had a substantial impact on the history of China, being considered the ethnic majority of the region for most of its history. The prevailing historical narrative of China is often told as the transference of power throughdynasties, periods during which it has seencycles of expansion, contraction, unity, and fragmentation. During this lengthy imperial period of dynastic rule, the Han people, much like the region itself, have seen periods of both global power[120][121] and suppression,[122][123] of strife and peace, of influence and isolation, and of unity and division. The Han Chinese have often been historically attributed to holding dominant positions of governance throughout this dynastic period of Chinese history[citation needed], though in notable periods the dynastic rule has beenheld by non-Han ethnic minorities as well. Examples include theKhitan-leadLiao dynasty[124] (916–1125)Mongol-leadYuan dynasty[124] (1271–1368), and theJurchen-leadJin dynasty[124] (1115–1234) andQing dynasty[125] (1644–1912; initially the "later Jin", 1616–1636[126]).
During theWestern Zhou and Han dynasties, Han Chinese writers established genealogical lineages by drawing from legendary materials originating from theShang dynasty,[139] while the Han dynasty historianSima Qian'sRecords of the Grand Historian places the reign of theYellow Emperor, the legendary leader of Youxiong tribes (有熊氏), at the beginning of Chinese history. The Yellow Emperor is traditionally credited to have united with the neighbouringShennong tribes after defeating their leader, theYan Emperor, at theBattle of Banquan. The newly mergedYanhuang tribes then combined forces to defeat their common enemy from the east,Chiyou of the Jiuli (九黎) tribes, at theBattle of Zhuolu and established their cultural dominance in theCentral Plain region. To this day, modern Han Chinese refer themselves as "Descendants of Yan and Huang".
Early ancient Chinese history is largely legendary, consisting of mythical tales intertwined with sporadic annals written centuries to millennia later. Sima Qian'sRecords of the Grand Historian recorded a period following the Battle of Zhuolu, during the reign of successive generations of confederate overlords (Chinese:共主) known as theThree Sovereigns and Five Emperors (c. 2852–2070 BCE), who, allegedly, were elected to power among the tribes.[citation needed] This is a period for which scant reliable archaeological evidence exists – these sovereigns are largely regarded ascultural heroes.
Though modernly agreed to be mostly a product of legends and folklore, the first dynasty to be described in Chinese historical records is the Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BCE).[e][145] established byYu the Great afterEmperor Shun abdicated leadership to reward Yu's work in taming theGreat Flood. In traditional narrative, this is primarily where the ethnic Han originate from. In myth, Yu's son,Qi, managed to not only install himself as the next ruler, but also dictated his sons as heirs by default. This would have made the Xia dynasty to be the first civilization to be ruled bygenealogical succession. The civilizational prosperity of the Xia dynasty at this time is thought to have given rise to the name "Huaxia", a term that was used ubiquitously throughout history to define the Chinese nation.[146]
Conclusive archaeological evidence predating the 16th century BCE is, however, rarely available. Recent efforts of theXia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project drew the connection between theErlitou culture and the Xia dynasty, but scholars found this connection tenuous.[147] By exention, earliest writing by the Han Chinese are found in the period of the Shang dynasty.
During the Shang dynasty, people of theWu area in theYangtze River Delta were considered a different tribe, and described as being scantily dressed, tattooed and speaking a distinct language. Later,Taibo, elder uncle ofJi Chang – on realising that his younger brother, Jili, was wiser and deserved to inherit the throne – fled to Wu[148] and settled there. Three generations later,King Wu of the Zhou dynasty defeatedKing Zhou (the last Shang king), andenfeoffed the descendants of Taibo in Wu[148] – mirroring the later history ofNanyue, where a Chinese king and his soldiers ruled a non-Han population and mixed with locals, who weresinicized over time.
After theBattle of Muye, the Shang dynasty was overthrown byZhou (led byJi Fa), which had emerged as a western state along theWei River in the 2nd millennium BCE. TheZhou dynasty shared the language and culture of the Shang people, and extended their reach to encompass much of the area north of theYangtze River.[149] Through conquest and colonization, much of this area came under the influence of sinicization and this culture extended south. However, the power of the Zhou kings fragmented not long afterwards, and many autonomous vassal states emerged. This dynasty is traditionally divided into two eras – the Western Zhou (1046–771 BCE) and theEastern Zhou (770–256 BCE) – with the latter further divided into theSpring and Autumn (770–476 BCE) and theWarring States (476–221 BCE) periods. It was a period of significant cultural and philosophical diversification (known as theHundred Schools of Thought) andConfucianism,Taoism andLegalism are among the most important surviving philosophies from this era.[citation needed]
The chaotic Warring States period of the Eastern Zhou dynasty came to an end with the unification of China by the western state ofQin after itsconquest of all other rival states[when?] under KingYing Zheng. King Zheng then gave himself a new title "First Emperor of Qin" (Chinese:秦始皇帝;pinyin:Qín Shǐ Huángdì), setting the precedent for the next two millennia. To consolidate administrative control over the newly conquered parts of the country, the First Emperor decreed a nationwide standardization of currency, writing scripts and measurement units, to unify the country economically and culturally. He also ordered large-scale infrastructure projects such as theGreat Wall, theLingqu Canal and the Qin road system to militarily fortify the frontiers. In effect, he established a centralized bureaucratic state to replace the old feudal confederation system of preceding dynasties, making Qin the firstimperial dynasty in Chinese history.[citation needed]
This dynasty, sometimes phonetically spelt as the "Ch'in dynasty", has been proposed in the 17th century byMartino Martini and supported by later scholars such asPaul Pelliot andBerthold Laufer to be the etymological origin of the modern English word "China".[citation needed]
A female servant and male advisor dressed insilk robes, ceramic figurines from the Western Han era
The reign of the first imperial dynasty was short-lived. Due to the First Emperor's autocratic rule and his massive labor projects, which fomented rebellion among his population, the Qin dynasty fell into chaos soon after his death. Under the corrupt rule of his son and successorHuhai, the Qin dynasty collapsed a mere three years later. The Han dynasty (206 BC–220 CE) then emerged from the ensuingcivil wars and succeeded in establishing a much longer-lasting dynasty. It continued many of the institutions created by the Qin dynasty, but adopted a more moderate rule. Under the Han dynasty, art and culture flourished, while the Han Empireexpanded militarily in all directions. Many Chinese scholars such asHo Ping-ti believe that the concept (ethnogenesis) of Han ethnicity, although being ancient, was formally entrenched in the Han dynasty.[150] The Han dynasty is considered one of thegolden ages of Chinese history, with the modern Han Chinese people taking their ethnic name from this dynasty and the Chinese script being referred to as "Han characters".[151]
The fall of the Han dynasty was followed by an age of fragmentation and several centuries of disunity amid warfare among rival kingdoms. There was a brief period of prosperity under the native Han Chinese dynasty known as theJin (266–420 BC), although protracted struggles within the ruling house of Sima (司馬) sparked off a protracted period of fragmentation, rebellion by immigrant tribes that served as slaves and indentured servants, and extended non-native rule.[citation needed]
During this time, areas of northern China were overrun by variousnon-Han nomadic peoples, which came to establish kingdoms of their own, the most successful of which was theNorthern Wei established by theXianbei.[citation needed] From this period, the native population of China proper was referred to as Hanren, or the "People of Han" to distinguish them from the nomads from the steppe. Warfare and invasion led to one of the first great migrations of Han populations in history, as they fled south to theYangzi and beyond, shifting the Chinese demographic center and speeding up sinicization of the far south. At the same time, most of the nomads in northern China came to be sinicized as they ruled over large Chinese populations and adopted elements of their culture and administration. Of note, the Xianbei rulers of Northern Wei ordered a policy of systematic sinicization,adopting Han surnames, institutions, and culture, so the Xianbei became Han Chinese.
Map of Tang Empire in 742, showing themajor provinces of the empireCortege of Emperor Li Xian, Emperor of the Tang
敵可摧，旄頭滅，履胡之腸涉胡血。 懸胡青天上，埋胡紫塞傍。 胡無人，漢道昌。 The enemy can be crushed, their banners destroyed; We tread upon the entrails of theHu, wade through their blood. Hang the bodies of the Hu beneath the heavens, bury them beside the frontier. NoHu will remain, and the Han will always prosper
Han Chinese rule resumed during the Sui and Tang dynasties, led by the Han Chinese families of the Yang (杨) and Li (李) surnames respectively. Both the Sui and Tang dynasties are seen as high points of Han Chinese civilization. These dynasties both emphasized their aristocratic Han Chinese pedigree and enforced the restoration of Central Plains culture, even the founders of both dynasties had already intermarried with non-Han or partly-Han women from the Dugu and Yuwen families.[citation needed]
The Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties saw continuing emigration from the Central Plains to the south-eastern coast of what is now China proper, including the provinces ofFujian,Guangdong, andHainan. This was especially true in the latter part of the Tang era and the Five Dynasties period that followed; the relative stability of the south coast made it an attractive destination for refugees fleeing continual warfare and turmoil in the north.[citation needed]
The next few centuries saw successive invasions of Han and non-Han peoples from the north. In 1279, theMongols conquered all of China, becoming the first non-Han ethnic group to do so, and established theYuan dynasty.Emigration, seen as disloyal to ancestors and ancestral land, was banned by the Song and Yuan dynasties.[152]
EarlyManchu rulers treated China as equivalent to both the Ming Empire and to the Han group.[153] In 1644, the Ming capital,Beijing, was captured byLi Zicheng's peasant rebels and theChongzhen Emperor committed suicide. The Manchus of theQing dynasty then allied with former Ming generalWu Sangui and seized control of Beijing. Remnant Ming forces led byKoxinga fled toTaiwan and established theKingdom of Tungning, which eventually capitulated to Qing forces in 1683. Taiwan, previously inhabited mostly by non-Han aborigines, wassinicized during this period via large-scale migration accompanied by assimilation, despite efforts by the Manchus to prevent this, as they found it difficult to maintain control over the island. In 1681, theKangxi Emperor ordered construction of theWillow Palisade to prevent Han Chinese migration to the three northeastern provinces, which nevertheless had harbored a significant Chinese population for centuries, especially in the southernLiaodong area. The Manchus designated Jilin and Heilongjiang as the Manchu homeland, to which the Manchus could hypothetically escape and regroup if the Qing dynasty fell.[154] Because of increasing Russian territorial encroachment and annexation of neighboring territory, the Qing later reversed its policy and allowed the consolidation of a demographic Han majority in Northeast China. TheTaiping Rebellion erupted in 1850 from theanti-Manchu sentiment of the Han Chinese, which killed at least twenty million people and made itone of the bloodiest conflicts in history.[155] Late Qing revolutionary intellectualZou Rong famously proclaimed that "China is the China of the Chinese. We compatriots should identify ourselves with the China of the Han Chinese".[156]
TheHan nationalist revolutionarySun Yat-sen madeHan Chinese superiority a basic tenet of the1911 Revolution.[157] In Sun's revolutionary philosophical view, Han identity is exclusively possessed by the so-called civilized Hua Xia people who originated from the Central Plains, and were also the former subjects of theCelestial empire and evangelists of Confucianism.[156] Restoring Chinese rule to the Han majority was one of the motivations for supporters of the 1911 Revolution to overthrow the Manchu-ledQing dynasty in 1912, which led to the establishment of the Han-dominatedRepublic of China.[158] After the establishment of the republic, Sun went to offer sacrifices inHongwu Emperor'sXiao Mausoleum:
OurEmperor Gaozu, rose in due time to pacify theCentral Earth, restoring clarity to sun and moon, rebuilding rivers and mountains, reviving the great righteousness and proclaiming it to posterity. Alas, in the troubled age at the end of the dynasty, the nation's strength was exhausted, and theManchus took the opportunity to invade and occupy China. Alas, our compatriots—forefathers, elder and younger brothers—rose and fell one after another, for as long as 268 years. ... When theRevolt began in Wuhan, the Republic was established. Wherever the call of righteousness spread, the whole nation responded. After just eighty-seven days,seventeen provinces had been restored. By the will of the people, a provisional government was established in Nanjing through public consensus.
Chinese civilization is one of the world's oldest and most complex[according to whom?]civilizations, whose culture dates back thousands of years. Overseas Han Chinese maintain cultural affinities to Chinese territories outside of their host locale throughancestor worship andclan associations, which often identify famous figures from Chinese history or myth as ancestors of current members.[162] Such patriarchs include the Yellow Emperor and theYan Emperor, who according to legend lived thousands of years ago and gave Han people the sobriquet "Descendants of Yan and Huang Emperor" (炎黃子孫,炎黄子孙), a phrase which has reverberative connotations in a divisive political climate, as in that of major contentions betweenChina and Taiwan.
The Han Chinese also share a distinct set of cultural practices, traditions, and beliefs that have evolved over centuries. Traditional Han customs, art, dietary habits, literature, religious beliefs, and value systems have not only deeply influenced Han culture itself, but also the cultures of its East Asian neighbors as well.[163][164][165][166][167][168][169][170][171][172][173][excessive citations]Chinese art,Chinese architecture,Chinese cuisine,Chinese dance,Chinese fashion,Chinese festivals,Chinese holidays,Chinese language,Chinese literature,Chinese music,Chinese mythology,Chinese numerology,Chinese philosophy, andChinese theatre all have undergone thousands of years of development and growth, while numerous Chinese sites, such as theGreat Wall and theTerracotta Army, areWorld Heritage Sites. Since this program was launched in 2001, aspects of Chinese culture have been listed byUNESCO asMasterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. Throughout thehistory of China, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. Credited with shaping much of Chinese philosophical thought, Confucianism was the official state philosophical doctrine throughout most ofImperial China's history, institutionalizing values such asfilial piety, which implied the performance of certainshared rituals. Thus, villagers lavished onfuneral andwedding ceremonies that imitated the Confucian standards of the Emperors.[162] Educational achievement and academic success gained through years of arduous study and mastery ofclassical Confucian texts was an imperative duty for defending and protecting one'sfamily honor while also providing the primary qualifying basis criterion for entry among ambitious individuals who sought to hold high ranking and influentialgovernment positions of distinguished authority, importance, responsibility, and power within the upper echelons of theimperial bureaucracy.[174][175][176] But even among successful test takers anddegree-holders who did not enter the imperial bureaucracy or who left it opting out to pursue other careers experienced significant improvements with respect to their credibility, pedigree, respectability, social status, and societal influence, resulting in a considerable amelioration with regards to theesteem,glory,honor,prestige, andrecognition that they brought and garnered to their families, social circles, and the localities that they hailed from. This elevation in their social standing, respectability, and pedigree was greatly augmented both within their own family circles, as well as among their neighbors and peers compared with the regular levels of recognition that they would have typically enjoyed had they only chosen to remain as mere commoners back in their ancestral regions. Yet even such a dynamic social phenomenon has greatly influenced Han society, leading to the homogenization of the Han populace. Additionally, it has played a crucial role in the formation of a socially cohesive and distinct shared Han culture as well as the overall growth and integration of Han society. This development has been facilitated by various extraneous factors, including periods of rapid urbanization and sprouts of geographically extensive yet interconnected commodity markets.[162]
Han Chinese speak various forms of the Chinese language that are descended from a common early language;[162] one of the names of the language groups isHanyu (simplified Chinese:汉语; traditional Chinese:漢語), literally the "Han language". Similarly,Chinese characters, used to write the language, are calledHanzi (simplified Chinese:汉字; traditional Chinese:漢字) or "Han characters".
In the Qing era, more than two-thirds of the Han Chinese population used a variant ofMandarin Chinese as their native tongue.[162] However, there was a larger variety of languages in certain areas of Southeast China, "in an arc extending roughly fromShanghai throughGuangdong and intoGuangxi."[162] Since the Qin dynasty, which standardized the various forms of writing that existed in China, a standardliterary Chinese had emerged with vocabulary and grammar that was significantly different from the variousforms of spoken Chinese. A simplified and elaborated version of this written standard was used in business contracts, notes forChinese opera, ritual texts forChinese folk religion and other daily documents for educated people.[162]
During the early 20th century,written vernacular Chinese based on Mandarin dialects, which had been developing for several centuries, was standardized and adopted to replace literary Chinese. While written vernacular forms of other varieties of Chinese exist, such aswritten Cantonese, written Chinese based on Mandarin is widely understood by speakers of all varieties and has taken up the dominant position among written forms, formerly occupied by literary Chinese. Thus, although residents of different regions would not necessarily understand each other's speech, they generally share a common written language, Standard Written Chinese and Literary Chinese.[citation needed]
From the 1950s,Simplified Chinese characters were adopted in China and later in Singapore and Malaysia, while Chinese communities in Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan and overseas countries continue to useTraditional Chinese characters.[177] Although significant differences exist between the two character sets, they are largelymutually intelligible.
ASong dynasty Chinese paintingNight Revels of Han Xizai showing scholars in scholar's robes and musicians dressed in aHanfu variant, 12th-century remake of a 10th-century original byGu Hongzhong.
Han Chinese clothing has been shaped through its dynastic traditions as well as foreign influences.[179] Han Chinese clothing showcases the traditional fashion sensibilities of Chinese clothing traditions and forms one of the major cultural facets of Chinese civilization.[180]Hanfu comprises all traditional clothing classifications of the Han Chinese with a recorded history of more than three millennia until the end of the Ming dynasty. During the Qing dynasty, Hanfu was mostly replaced by the Manchu style until the dynasty's fall in 1911, yet Han women continued to wear clothing from Ming dynasty. Manchu and Han fashions of women's clothing coexisted during the Qing dynasty.[181][182] Moreover, neither Taoist priests nor Buddhist monks were required to wear the queue by the Qing; they continued to wear their traditional hairstyles, completely shaved heads for Buddhist monks, and long hair in the traditional Chinese topknot for Taoist priests.[183][184] During the Republic of China period, fashion styles and forms of traditional Qing costumes gradually changed, influenced by fashion sensibilities from the Western World resulting modern Han Chinese wearing Western style clothing as a part of everyday dress.[185][180]
Han Chinese clothing has continued to play an influential role within the realm of traditional East Asian fashion as both the JapaneseKimono and the KoreanHanbok were influenced by Han Chinese clothing designs.[186][187][188][189][190]
Han Chinese families throughout China have had certain traditionally prescribed roles, such as the family head (家長,jiāzhǎng), who represents the family to the outside world and the family manager (當家,dāngjiā), who is in charge of the revenues. Because farmland was commonly bought, sold ormortgaged, families were run like enterprises, with set rules for the allocation (分家,fēnjiā) of pooled earnings and assets.[162]
Han Chinese houses differ from place to place. In Beijing, the whole family traditionally lived together in a large rectangle-shaped house called asiheyuan. Such houses had four rooms at the front – guest room,kitchen,lavatory andservants' quarters. Across large double doors was a wing for the elderly in the family. This wing consisted of three rooms: a central room where the four tablets – heaven, earth, ancestor and teacher – were worshipped and two rooms attached to the left and right, which werebedrooms for the grandparents. The east wing of the house was inhabited by the eldest son and his family, while the west wing sheltered the second son and his family. Each wing had averanda; some had a "sunroom" made with surrounding fabric and supported by a wooden orbamboo frame. Every wing was also built around a central courtyard that was used for study, exercise or nature viewing.[191]
Ancestry and lineage are an important part of Han Chinese cultural practice and self-identity, and there have been strict naming conventions since the time of the Song dynasty that have been preserved until this day. Elaborate and detailed genealogies and family registers are maintained, and most lineage branches of all surname groups will maintain a hall containing the memorial tablets (also known as spirit tablets) of deceased family members in clan halls. Extended family groupings have been very important to the Han Chinese, and there are strict conventions as how one may refer to aunts, uncles, and cousins and the spouses of the same, depending on their birth order as well as whether these blood relatives share the same surname.[citation needed]
Ma (马) family genealogy
Name tablets or spirit tablets in Tainan, Taiwan
Memorial tablets of the Khoo (許) family in Penang
Painting of the ancestors of the Li (李) family
Painting of ancestors
Ancestral halls and academies, as well as tombs were of great import to the Chinese. Ancestral halls were used for the veneration or commemoration of ancestors and other large family events. Family members preferred to be buried near one another. Academies were also set up to benefit those of the same surname.[citation needed]
There is no one specific uniformcuisine of the Han Chinese since the culinary traditions and food consumed varies fromSichuan's famouslyspicy food to Guangdong'sdim sum andfresh seafood.[192] Analyses throughout the reaches ofNorthern and Southern China have revealed their main staple to be rice (more likely to consumed by southerners) as well as noodles and other wheat-based food items (which are more likely to be eaten by northerners).[193] During China's Neolithic period, southwestern rice growers transitioned to millet from the northwest, when they could not find a suitable northwestern ecology – which was typically dry and cold – to sustain the generous yields of their staple as well as it did in other areas, such as along the eastern Chinese coast.[194]
Lu Xun is one of the founding figures of modern Chinese literature.[195]Du Fu is often considered one of the greatest Chinese poets.[196]
With a rich historical literary heritage spanning over three thousand years, the Han Chinese have continued to push the boundaries that have circumscribed the standards of literary excellence by showcasing an unwaveringly exceptional caliber and extensive wealth of literary accomplishments throughout the ages. The Han Chinese possess a vast catalogue ofclassical literature that can be traced back as far as three millennia, with a body of literature encompassing significant early works such as theClassic of Poetry,Analects of Confucius,I Ching,Tao Te Ching and theArt of War. Canonical works ofBuddhism, Confucianism, andTaoism alongside historical writings, philosophical works, treatises, poetry, drama, and fiction have been revered and immortalized as timeless cultural masterpieces within the vast expanse of Chinese literature. Historically, ambitious individuals who aspired to seek topgovernment positions of distinguished authority, importance, and power were mandated to demonstrate their proficiency in the Confucian classics assessed through rigorousexaminations in Imperial China.[174][175] Such comprehensive examinations were not only employed as the prevailing universal standards to evaluate a candidate's ethical behavior and virtuous conduct, but were also deployed as a measure of academic aptitude that determined a candidate's caliber, credibility, and eligibility for such esteemed roles of great influence and responsibility, extending beyond their prevailing entrance as a gateway into the imperial bureaucracy. Han literature itself has a rich tradition dating back thousands of years, from the earliest recorded dynastic court archives to the mature vernacular fiction novels that arose during the Ming dynasty which were employed as a source of cultural pleasure to entertain the masses of literate Chinese. Some of the most important Han Chinese poets in the pre-modern era wereLi Bai,Du Fu andSu Dongpo. The most esteemed and noteworthy novels of great literary significance in Chinese literature, otherwise known as the Four Great Classical Novels are:Dream of the Red Chamber,Water Margin,Romance of the Three Kingdoms andJourney to the West.
Drawing upon their extensive literary heritage rooted in a historical legacy spanning over three thousand years, the Han Chinese have continued to demonstrate a uniformly high level of literary achievement throughout the modern era as the reputation of contemporary Chinese literature continues to be internationally recognized. Erudite literary scholars who are well-versed in Chinese literature continue to remain highly esteemed in contemporary Chinese society.Liu Cixin'sSan Ti series won theHugo Award.[197]Gao Xingjian became the first Chinese novelist to receive theNobel Prize for Literature in 2000. In 2012, the novelist and short story writerMo Yan also received the Nobel Prize in Literature. In 2015, children's writerCao Wenxuan was bestowed with theHans Christian Andersen Award, the first Chinese recipient of the esteemed international children's book prize.[198]
The Han Chinese have made significant contributions to various fields in the advancement and progress of human civilization, including business and economy, culture and society, governance, andscience and technology, both historically and in the modern era. They have also played a pivotal role in being at the forefront of shaping the evolutionary trajectory of Chinese civilization and significantly influenced the advancement of East Asian civilization in concurrence with the broader region of East Asia as a whole. The invention of paper, printing, the compass and gunpowder are celebrated in Chinese society as theFour Great Inventions.[199] The innovations ofYi Xing (683–727), a polymathic Buddhist monk, mathematician, and mechanical engineer of the Tang dynasty is acknowledged for applying the earliest-known escapement mechanism to awater-powered celestial globe.[200][201][202][203] The accomplishments and advancements of the Song dynasty polymathSu Song (1020–1101) is recognized for inventing ahydro-mechanicalastronomicalclock tower in medievalKaifeng, which employed an earlyescapement mechanism.[204][205][206][200] The work of medieval Chinese polymathShen Kuo (1031–1095) of the Song dynasty theorized that the sun and moon were spherical and wrote of planetary motions such as retrogradation as well as postulating theories for the processes of geological land formation.[207] Medieval Han Chinese astronomers were also among the first peoples to record observations of a cosmicsupernova in 1054 AD, the remnants of which would form theCrab Nebula.[207]
The 1978 Wolf Prize in Physics inaugural recipient and physicistChien-Shiung Wu, nicknamed the "First Lady of Physics" contributed to the development of theManhattan Project and radically altered modern physical theory and changed the conventionally accepted view of the structure of the universe.[211] The geometerShiing-Shen Chern has been regarded as the "father of modern differential geometry" and has also been recognized as one of the greatest mathematicians of the 20th century. Chern was awarded the 1984 Wolf Prize in mathematics in recognition for his fundamental contributions to the development and growth ofdifferential geometry andtopology.[212][213][214][215][216][217][excessive citations] The botanistShang Fa Yang was well-noted for his research that unlocked the key to prolonging freshness in fruits and flowers and "for his remarkable contributions to the understanding of the mechanism of biosynthesis, mode of action and applications of the plant hormone,Ethylene."[218] The agronomistYuan Longping, regarded as the "Father of Hybrid Rice" was famous for developing the world's first set ofhybrid rice varieties in the 1970s, which was then part of theGreen Revolution that marked a major scientific breakthrough within the field of modern agricultural research.[219][220][221][222] The physical chemistChing W. Tang, was the inventor of theorganic light-emitting diode (OLED) and hetero-junctionorganic photovoltaic cell (OPV) and is widely considered the "Father ofOrganic Electronics".[223] BiochemistChi-Huey Wong is well known for his pioneering research in glycoscience research and developing the first enzymatic method for the large-scale synthesis of oligosaccharides and the first programmable automated synthesis of oligosaccharides. The chemical biologistChuan He is notable for his work in discovering and deciphering reversibleRNA methylation in post-transcriptional gene expression regulation.[224] Chuan is also noteworthy for having invented TAB-seq, a biochemical method that can map 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) at base-resolution genome-wide, as well as hmC-Seal, a method that covalently labels 5hmC for its detection and profiling.[225][226]
Other prominent Han Chinese who have made notable contributions the development and growth of modern science and technology include the medical researcher, physician, and virologistDavid Ho, who was one of the first scientists to propose that AIDS was caused by a virus, thus subsequently developing combination antiretroviral therapy to combat it. In recognition of his medical contributions, Ho was namedTime magazine Person of the Year in 1996.[227] The medical researcher and transplant surgeonPatrick Soon-Shiong is the inventor of the drugAbraxane, which became known for its efficacy against lung, breast, and pancreatic cancer.[228] Soon-Shiong is also well known for performing the first whole-pancreas transplant[229][230] and he developed and first performed the experimentalType 1 diabetes-treatment known as encapsulated-human-islet transplant, and the "first pig-to-man islet-cell transplant in diabetic patients."[229] The physician and physiologistThomas Ming Swi Chang is the inventor of the world's firstartificial cell made from a permeable plastic sack that would effectively carry hemoglobin around the human circulatory system.[231] Chang is also noteworthy for his development of charcoal-filled cells to treat drug poisoning in addition to the discovery of enzymes carried by artificial cells as a medical tool to correct the faults within some metabolic disorders.[232]Min Chueh Chang was the co-inventor of thecombined oral contraceptive pill and is known for his pioneering work and significant contributions to the development ofin vitro fertilization at theWorcester Foundation for Experimental Biology.[233][234] BiochemistChoh Hao Li discoveredhuman growth hormone (and subsequently used it to treat a form ofdwarfism caused bygrowth hormone deficiency),beta-endorphin (the most powerful of the body's natural painkillers),follicle-stimulating hormone andluteinizing hormone (the key hormone used infertility testing, an example is theovulation home test).[235][236]Joe Hin Tjio was a cytogeneticist renowned as the first person to recognize the normal number of human chromosomes, a breakthrough inkaryotypegenetics.[237][238] The bio-engineerYuan-Cheng Fung, was regarded as the "Father of modernbiomechanics" for pioneering the application of quantitative and analytical engineering principles to the study of the human body and disease.[239][240] China's system of "barefoot doctors" was among the most important inspirations for theWorld Health Organization conference in Alma Ata, Kazakhstan in 1978, and was hailed as a revolutionary breakthrough in international health ideology emphasizingprimary health care andpreventive medicine.[241][242]
Confucianism,Taoism, andChinese Buddhism, as well as other various traditional homegrown Chinese philosophies, have influenced not only Han Chinese culture, but also theneighboring cultures in East Asia. Chinese spiritual culture has been long characterized byreligious pluralism andChinese folk religion has always maintained a profound influence within the confines of Chinese civilization both historically and in the modern era. Indigenous Confucianism and Taoism share aspects of being a philosophy or a religion and neither demand exclusive adherence, resulting in a culture of tolerance andsyncretism, where multiple religions or belief systems are often practiced in conjunction with local customs and traditions. Han culture has for long been influenced byMahayana Buddhism, while in recent centuriesChristianity has also gained a foothold among the population.[243]
During the Han dynasty,Confucian ideals were the dominant ideology. Near the end of the dynasty, Buddhism entered China, later gaining popularity. Historically, Buddhism alternated between periods of state tolerance (and even patronage) andpersecution. In its original form, certain ideas inBuddhism was not quite compatible with traditional Chinese cultural values, especially with the Confucian sociopolitical elite, as certain Buddhist values conflicted with Chinese sensibilities. However, through centuries of mutual tolerance, assimilation, adaptation, and syncretism,Chinese Buddhism gained a respectable place in the culture. Chinese Buddhism was also influenced by Confucianism and Taoism and exerted influence in turn – such as in the form ofNeo-Confucianism and Buddhist influences in Chinese folk religion, such as the cult of Guanyin, who is treated as a Bodhisattva, immortal, goddess or exemplar of Confucian virtue, depending on the tradition. The four largest schools of Han Buddhism (Chan, Jingtu, Tiantai and Huayan) were all developed in China and later spread throughout the Chinese sphere of influence.[citation needed]
ThoughChristian influence in China existed as early as the 7th century, Christianity did not gain a significant foothold in China until theestablishment of contact with Europeans during theMing andQing dynasties. Christian beliefs often had conflicts with traditional Chinese values and customs which eventually resulted in theChinese Rites controversy and a subsequent reduction in Christian influence in the country. Christianity grew considerably following theFirst Opium War, after which foreign missionaries in China enjoyed the protection of the Western powers and engaged in widespread proselytizing.[245]
The People's Republic of China government defined Chinese-speaking Muslims as a separate ethnic group, the "Hui People". This was opposed by the Republic of China government and Muslim celebrities such asBai Chongxi, the founder of theChinese Muslim Association. Han Chinese Muslims were categorised as "inland nationals with special living customs" under the Republic of China government.[246] Bai Chongxi believed that "Hui" is an alternative name forIslam as a religion in the Chinese language instead of the name for any ethnic group, and that Chinese-speaking Muslims should not be considered as a separate ethnic group apart from other Han Chinese.[247]
The reference population for the Han Chinese used inGeno 2.0 Next Generation is 81% Eastern Asia, 2% Finland and Northern Siberia, 8% Central Asia, and 7% Southeast Asia & Oceania.[248] The internal genetic structure of the Han Chinese is consistent with the vast geographical expanse of China. The recorded history of largemigratory waves over the past several millennia have also engendered the emergence of diverseHan subgroups, who display slight but discernible physical and physiological differences. Although genetically similar, Han Chinese subgroups exhibit a north–south stratification in their genetics,[249][250][251][252] with centrally placed populations acting as conduits for outlying ones.[249] Despite no clear genetic divide between the north and south due to the Han Chinese being a clinal population, many studies simply categorize the Han Chinese into two subgroups out of convenience: Northern and Southern Han Chinese.[253]
Several genetic studies show that both Northern and Southern Han Chinese share ancestry withNeolithic Chinese populations from the Central Plains.[254][255][256][257] Northern Han Chinese and Southern Han Chinese can be modeled as having Neolithic Yellow River (Sino-Tibetan) andKra-Dai ancestries, although Kra-Dai ancestry is more common in Southern Han.[258][259] Despite a shared Neolithic Yellow River ancestry, the Han sub-groups slightly differ in their ancestral components, reflective of their vast demographic history. Specifically, they tend to share some maternal ancestry with geographically close minority groups. For example, Southern Han show evidence of being admixed with populations of Tai-Kadai and Austronesian ancestry. Southwestern Han show admixture withHmong-Mien speakers, whilst Northwestern Han have very minor West Eurasian ancestral components, dating 4,500–1,200/1,300 years ago. Northeastern Han have more Yellow River Basin and Ancient Northeast Asian ancestry than Southern Han Chinese.[260]
Variation notwithstanding, Han Chinese subgroups are genetically closer to each other than they each are to their Korean and Yamato neighbors,[261] to whom they are also genetically close in general. The close genetic relationship between the Han across the entirety of China has led to their characterization as having a "coherent genetic structure".[250][252]
The two notable exceptions to this structure arePinghua andTanka people,[262] who on their patrilines, bear a closer genetic resemblance to aboriginal peoples, but have Han matrilines. The Tanka are a group of boat-dwellers who speak a Sinitic language and who claim Han ancestry, but who have traditionally faced severe discrimination from the other Southern Han subgroups. Unlike the Guangdong, Fujian and Hainan Han (whose dominant Y-chromosome haplotype is the Han patriline O2-M122), the Tanka have been shown instead to have a predominantly non-Han patriline similar to Daic peoples from Guizhou.[263][264] However, matrilineally, the Tanka are closely clustered with the Hakka Han and Teochew Han, rather than with Austronesian or Austroasiatic populations, thus supporting an admixture hypothesis and validating, even if only partially, their own claims to Han ancestry.[263][264]
A PCA graph illustrates the genetic differences among Han Chinese subgroups.[265]
The estimated genetic contribution of Northern Han to Southern Han is substantial in the ancestral patrilineage in addition to a geographiccline that exists for the corresponding matrilineage. These genetic findings align with the historic trend of Northern Han migrants settling in Southern China due to dynastic changes, geopolitical upheavals, instability, warfare and famine.[266][251][267][95][96][97][98][99][100][101][89][90][91][92][93][94][excessive citations] The subsequent intermarriages between Northern Han migrants and southern aborigines over the past few thousand years gave rise to modern Chinese demographics—a Han Chinese super-majority and minority non-Han Chinese indigenous peoples.[251]
Han Chinese from Fujian and Guangdong show excessive ancestries fromLate Neolithic Fujianese-related sources (35.0–40.3%), which are more significant in modernAmi,Atayal andKankanaey (66.9–74.3%), and less significant in Han Chinese from Zhejiang (22%), Jiangsu (17%) and Shandong (8%). This suggests significant genetic contribution from Kra-Dai-related peoples. They also have ancestry fromNeolithic Mekong-related sources but this is less significant (21.8–23.6%). However, Han Chinese from Guangxi exhibit the lowest Northern East Asian ancestry among the Han subgroups (33.8 ± 4.8%).[268] Han Chinese from Guangxi and Hainan cluster with Han Chinese from Guangdong but they mixed with minority groups within their respective provinces.[269][270][271] One study shows higher affinities between Han Chinese from Northern Guangxi and local Austronesian, Kra-Dai and Austroasiatic groups compared to Han Chinese from Southern Guangxi.[271] Another study shows stronger affinities between Han Chinese from Hainan andTujia,Bai,She,YunnanYi and Sinitic-speaking populations compared to indigenous Hlai peoples, who show more Kra-Dai affinities.[272]Lingnan Han Chinese also share affinities with the Kinh Vietnamese,[273] although other studies show stronger affinities betweenDai people and Kinh Vietnamese.[274][275][276] Ancient population admixture with Ami and Atayal exists for Han Chinese from Guangdong andSichuan[277][278] and the ancestors ofTaiwanese Han.[278] Overall, Cantonese people represent the southernmost Han sub-group, splitting from Northern Han between the Qin and Tang dynasties,[279][280] although there is evidence of additional admixture with Teochew and Hakka people.[281] Other studies suggest that Han Chinese fromFujian and Taiwan are equally as southern.[282][283]
In contrast, Southwestern Han Chinese exhibit admixture with neighboring Hmong-Mien-speaking and lowlandTibeto-Burman-speaking populations[284] and have higher northern East Asian affinities.[285] Eastern Han Chinese from provinces like Jiangsu, Shanghai, Zhejiang and Shandong also have some southern East Asian affinities. However, Han Chinese from Shandong derive their ancestries from populations with higher northern East Asian affinities.[286]
The Y-chromosome haplogroup distribution between Southern Han Chinese and Northern Han Chinese populations and principal core component analysis indicates that almost all modern Han Chinese populations form a tight cluster in their Y chromosome:
Haplogroups prevalent in non-Han southern natives such as O1b-M110, O2a1-M88 and O3d-M7, which are prevalent in non-Han southern natives, were observed in 4% of Southern Han Chinese and not at all in the Northern Han.[288][289]
Biological research findings have also demonstrated that the paternal lineages Y-DNA O-M119,[290] O-P201,[291] O-P203[291] and O-M95[292] are found in commonly Southern non-Han minorities, less commonly in Southern Han, and even less frequently in Northern Han Chinese.[293]
Haplogroups O1 and O2 significantly peak in the southeastern coastlines and eastern regions of China respectively, according to one study.[294]
Patrilineal DNA indicates the Northern Han Chinese were the primary contributors to the paternal gene pool of modern southern Han Chinese.[287][288][289][293] The data also indicates that the contribution of southern non-Han aboriginals to the southern Han Chinese genetics is limited. In short, male Han Chinese were the primary drivers of Han Chinese expansion in successive migratory waves from the north into what is now modern Southern China as is shown by a greater contribution to the Y-chromosome than the mtDNA from northern to Southern Han.[251]
During the Zhou dynasty, or earlier, peoples with haplogroup Q-M120 also contributed to the ethnogenesis of Han Chinese people. This haplogroup is implied to be spread across in the Eurasian steppe and north Asia since it is found amongCimmerians inMoldova and Bronze Age natives ofKhövsgöl. But it is currently near-absent in these regions except for East Asia. In modern China, haplogroup Q-M120 can be found in the northern and eastern regions.[295]
Sub-lineages of haplogroups C2b, O2a2a and O1b-M268 are common for populations from Eastern China. In particular, many individuals from Eastern China have haplogroups related to O1b1a2. This haplogroup is quite rare in East Asia but is mostly found in the southeastern part of Northeastern China and Vietnam, especially amongHan Chinese individuals.[296]
Matrilineal DNA
MtDNA of Han Chinese increases in diversity as one looks from northern to Southern China, which suggests that the influx of male Han Chinese migrants intermarried with the local female non-Han aborigines after arriving in what is now modern-day Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan and other regions of Southern China.[288][289] In these populations, the contribution to mtDNA from Han Chinese and indigenous tribes is evenly matched, representing a substantial mtDNA contribution from non-Han groups, collectively known as the Bai Yue or Hundred Yue.[288][289]
A study by the Chinese Academy of Sciences into the gene frequency data of Han sub-populations and ethnic minorities in China, showed that Han sub-populations in different regions are also genetically quite close to the local ethnic non-Han minorities, meaning that in many cases, the blood of ethnic minorities had mixed into Han genetic substrate through varying degrees of intermarriage, while at the same time, the blood of the Han had also mixed into the genetic substrates of the local ethnic non-Han minorities.[297]
Genetic continuity between ancient and modern Han Chinese
The Hengbei archaeological site in Jiang County, southern Shanxi was part of the suburbs of the capital during the Zhou dynasty. Genetic material from human remains in Hengbei have been used to examine the genetic continuity between ancient and modern Han Chinese.[250]
Comparisons of Y chromosomesingle-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) andmitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) between modern Northern Han Chinese and 3,000-year-old Hengbei samples reveal extreme similarity, confirming genetic continuity between ancient Hengbei inhabitants to present-day Northern Han Chinese. This shows that the core genetic structure of Northern Han Chinese was established more than three thousand years ago in the Central Plains Area.[250][298] Additionally, these studies indicate that contemporary northern and southern Han Chinese populations exhibit an almost identical Y-DNA genetic structure, indicating a common paternal descent, corroborating the historical record of Han Chinese migration to the south.[250] However, a study ofmitochondrial DNA from Yinxu commoner graves in theShang dynasty showed similarity with modern Northern Han Chinese, but significant differences from southern Han Chinese, indicating admixture on the matriline.[299]
About 2,000 years ago, between the Warring States period and Eastern Han dynasty, the northeast coastlines of China faced an eastward migration from the Central Plains, shaping the genetic structure of local populations to the present. These populations also have more southern East Asian ancestry compared to their predecessors.[300]
The Han Chinese show a close yet distinguishable genetic relationship with other East Asian populations such as theKoreans andYamato.[301][302][303][304][305][306][261][excessive citations] Although the genetic relationship is close, the various Han Chinese subgroups are genetically closer to each other than to their Korean and Japanese counterparts.[261]
Other research suggests a significant overlap between Yamato Japanese and the Northern Han Chinese in particular.[307]
The classification of Han Chinese has gone through numerous historical permutations. This, coupled with the loose terms of Han qualification, has lead some modern academics to question its use both historically and modernly. It has been critiqued by some as being used similarly to the concept of "whiteness" in the Western tradition,[308] expanding and contrasting to include whoever is politically useful.[309] This has lead to a relatively recent resurgence in viewing the concept of Han Chinese through a critical lense.[310][311]
"Han Chinese, as a category, holds considerable commonality with the category of whiteness. Both are comparatively recent social constructions that fused together large subgroups of people, who themselves possessed their own distinct cultures and languages. Although Han Chinese as a defined ethno-racial category did not exist prior to the 20th century, 'the modern ethnonym builds on a much older historical formulation, one that informs the "cultural stuff" which defines the boundaries, symbols and sentiment of Han today'." - The operations of contemporary Han Chinese privilege, Reza Hasmath[312]
Some critics argue that term has been particularly used as a tool ofChinese populist nationalism at the end of the Qing dynasty.[311] This phenomenon is calledHan Nationalism. TheXinhai revolution of 1911 saw the rise of Chinese nationalism as a primary competing ideology of the 20th century after its use in establishing the Republic as a populist,anti-Qing[f] rallying cry. Though after the Republic was established there were policies to progressively ease racial tensions, such as the doctrine ofFive Races Under One Union (五族共和; wǔ zú gònghé; literally "five-race republic"), Han Nationalism as a movement has remained to the modern day.[311]
^There has been a lot of modern discourse relating to the Xia dynasty, and its possible role in the greater movements of Chinese history. It is generally accepted to have been at least largely legendary by modern scholarship. The modern consensus, formed primarily from a lack of archaeological evidence and any lack of mention during the Shang dynasty, would likely indicate it was a construction during the Zhou dynasty after the Zhou conquest of the Shang dynasty. This was most likely in order to establish a precedent that would retroactively justify Zhou rule. Any historical form that the possible historical Xia peoples would have existed would have little resemblance to a unified civilization and more of that of a loose band of tribes around the Yellow River valley. The legendary status of the Xia would then give similar justification when the Zhou dynastic rule is ended to pave way for the Han, and then by course all other major dynasties until 1911. The legend of the Xia is largely necessary to traditional narratives of the Mandate of Heaven, and without it the narrative would become unstable due to a regress.
^By virtue of being an ethnic supremacist ideology, it naturally positions itself against the Manchu's, the ethnic rulers of the Qing dynasty.
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^Amy Chua; Jed Rubenfeld (2014).The Triple Package: How Three Unlikely Traits Explain the Rise and Fall of Cultural Groups in America. Penguin Press HC. p. 121.ISBN978-1-59420-546-0.
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