Habesha peoples (Ge'ez:ሐበሠተ;Amharic:ሐበሻ;Tigrinya:ሓበሻ; commonly used exonym:Abyssinians) is an ethnic orpan-ethnic identifier that has historically been applied toSemitic-speaking, predominantlyOriental Orthodox Christian peoples native to the highlands ofEthiopia andEritrea betweenAsmara andAddis Ababa (i.e. the modern-dayAmhara,Tigrayan,Tigrinya peoples) and this usage remains common today. The term is also used in varying degrees of inclusion and exclusion of other groups.

The oldest reference to Habesha was in second or third centurySabaean engravings asḤbśt orḤbštm recounting the South Arabian involvement of thenəgus ("king")GDRT of ḤBŠT.^[1] The term appears to refer to a group of peoples, rather than a specific ethnicity. Another Sabaean inscription describes an alliance between Shamir Yuhahmid of theHimyarite Kingdom and King`DBH of ḤBŠT in the first quarter of the third century.^[1] However, South Arabian expert Eduard Glaser claimed that the Egyptian hieroglyphicḫbstjw, used in reference to "a foreign people from the incense-producing regions" (i.e.Land of Punt) by PharaohHatshepsut in 1450 BC, was the first usage of the term or somehow connected. Francis Breyer also believes the Egyptian demonym to be the source of the Semitic term.^[2][3]

The first attestation of late LatinAbissensis is from the fifth century CE. The 6th-century authorStephanus of Byzantium later used the term "Αβασηνοί" (i.e. Abasēnoi) to refer to "an Arabian people living next to theSabaeans together with theḤaḍramites." The region of the Abasēnoi produce[d] myrrh, incense and cotton and they cultivate[d] a plant which yields a purple dye (probablywars, i.e.Fleminga grahamiana). It lay on a route which leads fromZabīd on the coastal plain to the Ḥimyarite capitalẒafār.^[2] Abasēnoi was located by Hermann von Wissman as a region in theJabal Ḥubayshmountain inIbb Governorate,^[4] perhaps related in etymology with the ḥbšSemitic root). Other place names in Yemen contain the ḥbš root, such as the Jabal Ḥabaši, whose residents are still calledal-Aḥbuš (pl. ofḤabaš).^[5] The location of the Abasēnoi in Yemen may perhaps be explained by remnant Aksumite populations from the 520s conquest byKing Kaleb.King Ezana's claims to Sahlen (Saba) and Dhu-Raydan (Himyar) during a time when such control was unlikely may indicate an Aksumite presence or coastal foothold.^[6] Traditional scholarship has assumed that the Habashat were a tribe from modern-day Yemen that migrated to Ethiopia and Eritrea. However, theSabaic inscriptions only use the term ḥbšt to the refer to the Kingdom of Aksum and its inhabitants, especially during the 3rd century, when the ḥbšt (Aksumites) were often at war with the Sabaeans and Himyraites.^[5] Modern Western European languages, including English, appear to borrow this term from the post-classical formAbissini in the mid-sixteenth century. (EnglishAbyssin is attested from 1576, andAbissinia andAbyssinia from the 1620s.)^[7]

Historically, the term "Habesha" represented northernEthiopian Highlands Semitic-speakingOrthodox Christians, while theCushitic-speaking peoples such asOromo andAgaw, as well as Semitic-speaking Muslims/Ethiopian Jews, were considered the periphery.^{[8][9][10][11][12][13]} Another neighboring group called theShanqella were also considered distinct from the Habesha.^[14]

According to Gerard Prunier, one very restrictive use of the term today by some Tigrayans refers exclusively to speakers ofTigrinya; however, Tigrayan oral traditions and linguistic evidence bear witness to ancient and constant relations with Amharas.^[15][16] SomeGurage societies, such as Orthodox Christian communities whereSoddo is spoken, identify as Habesha and have a strong sense of Ethiopian national identity, due in part to their ancient ties with the northern Habesha.^[17]

Muslim ethnic groups primarily located in theEritrean Highlands, including theTigre, as well as those in theEthiopian Highlands, have historically resisted the designation of Habesha. Instead, Eritrean and Ethiopian Muslims were commonly identified as theJeberti people.^[18][19] Another term for Muslims from theHorn of Africa was'"Al-Zaylai"', this applied to even the empressEleni of Ethiopia due to her ties to the state ofHadiya.^[20][21][22] At the turn of the 20th century, elites of theSolomonic dynasty employed the conversion of various ethnic groups to Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity and the imposition of the Amharic language to spread a common Habesha national identity.^[23]

WithinEthiopian andEritrean diasporic populations, some second generation immigrants have adopted the term "Habesha" in a broader sense as a supra-national ethnic identifier inclusive of all Eritreans and Ethiopians. For those who employ the term, it serves as a useful counter to more exclusionary identities such as "Amhara" or "Tigrayan". However, this usage is not uncontested: On the one hand, those who grew up in Ethiopia or Eritrea may object to the obscuring of national specificity.^{[24]: 186–188} On the other hand, groups that were subjugated in Ethiopia or Eritrea sometimes find the term offensive.^[25]

European scholars postulated that the ancient communities that evolved into the modern Ethiopian state were formed by a migration across the Red Sea ofSabaean-speaking South Arabian tribes, including one called the "Habashat", who intermarried with the local non-Semitic-speaking peoples, in around 1,000 BC. Many held to this view because "epigraphic and monumental evidence point to an indisputable South Arabian influence suggesting migration and colonization from Yemen in the early 1st millennium BC as the main factor of state formation on the highlands. Rock inscriptions in Qohayto (Akkala Guzay, Eritrea) document the presence of individuals or small groups from Arabia on the highlands at this time."^[26] It was first suggested by German orientalistHiob Ludolf and revived by early 20th-century Italian scholarConti Rossini. According to this theory, Sabaeans brought with them South Arabian letters and language, which gradually evolved into the Ge'ez language andGe'ez script. Linguists have revealed, however, that although its script developed fromEpigraphic South Arabian (whose oldest inscriptions are found in Yemen), Ge'ez is descended from a different branch of Southern Semitic,Ethiosemitic or Ethiopic sub-branch.^[27] South Arabian inscriptions does not mention any migration to the west coast of the Red Sea, nor of a tribe called "Habashat." All uses of the term date to the 3rd century AD and later, when they referred to the people of the Kingdom of Aksum.^[28][29]Edward Ullendorff has asserted that the Tigrayans and the Amhara comprise "Abyssinians proper" and a "Semitic outpost," whileDonald N. Levine has argued that this view "neglects the crucial role of non-Semitic elements in Ethiopian culture."^[30]Edward Ullendorff andCarlo Conti Rossini's theory thatEthiosemitic-language speakers of the northernEthiopian Highlands were ancient foreigners from South Arabia that displaced the original peoples of the Horn has been disputed by Ethiopian scholars specializing in Ethiopian Studies such as Messay Kebede and Daniel E. Alemu who generally disagree with this theory arguing that the migration was one of reciprocal exchange, if it even occurred at all. In the 21st century, scholars have largely discounted the longstanding presumption that Sabaean migrants had played a direct role in Ethiopian civilization.^{[31][32][33][34][35]}

Scholars have determined that the ancient Semitic language of Ethiopia was not derived from theSabaean language. Recent linguistic studies as to the origin of the Ethiosemitic languages seem to support the DNA findings of immigration from the Arabian Peninsula,^[36] with a recent study using Bayesian computational phylogenetic techniques finding that contemporary Ethiosemitic languages of Africa reflect a single introduction of early Ethiosemitic from southern Arabia approximately 2,800 years ago, and that this single introduction of Ethiosemitic subsequently underwent quick diversification within Ethiopia and Eritrea.^[37][27] There is also evidence of ancient Southern Arabian communities in modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea in certain localities, attested by some archaeological artifacts and ancient Sabaean inscriptions in the oldSouth Arabian alphabet. Joseph W. Michels noted based on his archeological surveying Aksumite sites that "there is abundant evidence of specific Sabean traits such as inscription style, religious ideology and symbolism, art style and architectural techniques."^[38] However,Stuart Munro-Hay points to the existence of an older D'MT kingdom, prior to any Sabaean migration c. 4th or 5th century BC, as well as evidence that Sabaean immigrants had resided in Ethiopia for little more than a few decades at the time of the inscriptions.^[39] Both the indigenous languages of Southern Arabia and the Amharic and Tigrinya languages of Ethiopia belong to the large branch ofSouth Semitic languages which in turn is part of theAfro-Asiatic Language Family. Even though theEthiosemitic languages are classified under the South Semitic languages branch with aCushitic language substratum.

Munro-May and related scholars believe that Sabaean influence was minor, limited to a few localities, and disappearing after a few decades or a century. It may have represented a trading colony (trading post) or military installations in a symbiotic or military alliance between the Sabaeans and D`MT.^[40][39]

In the reign of KingEzana, c. early 4th century AD, the term "Ethiopia" is listed as one of the nine regions under his domain, translated in theGreek version of his inscription asΑἰθιοπίαAithiopía. This is the first known use of this term to describe specifically the region known today as Ethiopia (and notKush or the entire African and Indian region outside of Egypt).^[2]

There are many theories regarding the beginning of the Abyssinian civilization. One theory, which is more widely accepted today, locates its origins in the Horn region.^[41] At a later period, this culture was exposed toJudaic influence, of which the best-known examples are theQemant and Ethiopian Jews (orBeta Israel) ethnic groups, but Judaic customs, terminology, and beliefs can be found amongst the dominant culture of the Amhara and Tigrinya.^[42] Some scholars have claimed that the Indian alphabets had been used to create the vowel system of theGe'ezabugida, this claim has not yet been effectively proven.^[43]

Abyssinian civilization has its roots in the pre-Aksumite culture.^[44] An early kingdom to arise was that ofD'mt in the 8th century BC. TheKingdom of Aksum, one of the powerful civilizations of the ancient world, was based there from about 150 BC to the mid of 12th century AD. Spreading far beyond the city of Aksum, it molded one of the earliest cultures of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Architectural remains include finely carvedstelae, extensive palaces, and ancient places of worship that are still being used.

Around the time that the Aksumite empire began to decline, the burgeoning religion ofIslam made its first inroads in the Abyssinian highlands. During the firstHijrah, the companions ofMuhammad were received in the Aksumite kingdom. TheSultanate of Shewa, established around 896, was one of the oldest local Muslim states. It was centered in the formerShewa province in central Ethiopia. The polity was succeeded by theSultanate of Ifat around 1285. Ifat was governed from its capital atZeila in northernSomalia.^[45]

Throughout history, populations in the Horn of Africa had been interacting through migration, trade, warfare and intermarriage. Most people in the region spokeAfroasiatic languages, with the family'sCushitic andSemitic branches predominant.^[46] As early as the 3rd millennium BCE, the pre-Aksumites had begun trading along the Red Sea. They mainly traded with Egypt. Earlier trade expeditions were taken by foot along the Nile Valley. The ancient Egyptians' main objective in theRed Sea trade was to acquiremyrrh. This was a commodity that the Horn region, which the ancient Egyptians referred to as theLand of Punt, had in abundance. Much of the incense is produced in Somalia to this day.

The Kingdom of Aksum may have been founded as early as 300 BCE. Very little is known of the time period between the mid-1st millennium BCE to the beginning of Aksum's rise around the 1st century CE. It is thought to be a successor kingdom ofDʿmt, a kingdom in the early 1st millennium BC most likely centered at nearbyYeha.^[47]

The Kingdom of Aksum was situated in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, with its capital city in Northern Ethiopia.Axum remained its capital until the 7th century. The kingdom was favorably located near theBlue Nile basin and the Afar depression. The former is rich in gold and the latter in salt: both materials having a highly important use to the Aksumites. Aksum was accessible to the port ofAdulis,Eritrea on the coast of the Red Sea. The kingdom traded with Egypt, India, Arabia and theByzantine Empire. Aksum's "fertile" and "well-watered" location produced enough food for its population. Wild animals included elephants and rhinoceros.^[48]

From its capital, Aksum commanded the trade ofivory. It also dominated the trade route in the Red Sea leading to the Gulf of Aden. Its success depended on resourceful techniques, production of coins, steady migrations of Greco-Roman merchants, and ships landing at Adulis. In exchange for Aksum's goods, traders bid many kinds of cloth, jewelry, metals and steel for weapons.

At its peak, Aksum controlled territories as far as southern Egypt, east to theGulf of Aden, south to theOmo River, and west to the Nubian Kingdom ofMeroë. The South Arabian kingdom of the Himyarites and also a portion of western Saudi Arabia was also under the power of Aksum. Their descendants include the present-day ethnic groups known as the Amhara, Tigrayans and Gurage peoples.^{[citation needed]}

After the fall of Aksum due to declining sea trade from fierce competition by Muslims and changing climate, the power base of the kingdom migrated south and shifted its capital to Kubar (near Agew). They moved southwards because, even though the Axumite Kingdom welcomed and protected the companions of Muhammad to Ethiopia, who came as refugees to escape the persecution of the ruling families of Mecca and earned the friendship and respect of Muhammad. Their friendship deteriorated when South-Arabians invaded the Dahlak islands through the port of Adulis and destroyed it, which was the economic backbone for the prosperous Aksumite Kingdom. Fearing of what recently occurred, Axum shifted its capital near Agew.^{[clarification needed]} In the middle of the sixteenth centuryAdal Sultanate armies led byHarar leaderAhmed Ibrahim invaded Habesha lands in what is known as the"Conquest of Habasha".^[49][50] Following Adal invasions, the southern part of the Empire was lost to Oromo and Muslim state ofHadiya thus scattered Habesha like the Gurage people were cut off from the rest of Abyssinia.^[51] In the late sixteenth century the nomadic Oromo people penetrated the Habesha plains occupying large territories during theOromo migrations.^[52][53] Abyssinian warlords often competed with each other for dominance of the realm. The Amharas seemed to gain the upper hand with the accession of Yekuno Amlak of Ancient Bete Amhara in 1270, after defeating the Agaw lords of Lasta (in those days a non-Semitic-speaking region of Abyssinia)

The Gondarian dynasty, which since the 16th century had become the centre of Royal pomp and ceremony of Abyssinia, finally lost its influence as a result of the emergence of powerful regional lords, following the murder ofIyasu I, also known as Iyasu the Great. The decline in the prestige of the dynasty led to the semi-anarchic era ofZemene Mesafint ("Era of the Princes"), in which rival warlords fought for power and theYejju Oromoenderases (Amharic:እንደራሴ, "regents") had effective control. Theemperors were considered to be figureheads. Until a young man named Kassa Haile Giorgis also known asEmperor Tewodros brought end toZemene Mesafint by defeating all his rivals and took the throne in 1855. The Tigrayans made only a brief return to the throne in the person ofYohannes IV in 1872, whose death in 1889 resulted in the power base shifting back to the dominant Amharic-speaking elite. His successorMenelik II an Emperor of Amhara origin seized power. Upon Menelik's occupation of theHarar Emirate and other neighboring states, a considerable number of natives were displaced and Abyssinians settled in their place.^[54][55][56] InArsi Province, mainly inhabited by theOromo people, their land was appropriated by the Abyssinian colonizers coupled with hefty taxation which led to a revolt in the 1960s.^[57]

Some scholars consider the Amhara to have been Ethiopia's ruling elite for centuries, represented by the Solomonic line of Emperors ending inHaile Selassie I. Marcos Lemma and other scholars dispute the accuracy of such a statement, arguing that other ethnic groups have always been active in the country's politics. This confusion may largely stem from the mislabeling of allAmharic-speakers as "Amhara", and the fact that many people from other ethnic groups have adopted Amharicnames. Another is the claim that most Ethiopians can trace their ancestry to multiple ethnic groups, including the last self-proclaimed emperorHaile Selassie I and his Empress ItegeMenen Asfaw ofAmbassel.^[58]

The Abyssinian Baptist Church was founded when visitingEthiopian seamen and freeAfrican-American parishioners left theFirst Baptist Church in protest over being restricted to raciallysegregated seating.^[59] They named their new congregation theAbyssinian Baptist Church after the historic name ofEthiopia.^[60] While originally used to refer specifically toAbyssinia, the term later became more broadly used to refer to Africans of any ethnicity.^[61][62] Similarly, this term for Siddis is held to be derived from the common name for the captains of theAbyssinian ships that also first delivered Siddi slaves to the subcontinent. HistorianRichard M. Eaton states Habshis were initiallypagans sold byEthiopian Christians toGujarati merchants for Indian textiles.^[63]Abyssinian Meeting House, is also historic church in Portland, Maine.

The Habesha developed an agricultural society, which most continue, including raising ofcamels,donkeys, andsheep. They plow using oxen. The Orthodox Church is an integral part of the culture. The church buildings are built on hills. Major celebrations during the year are held around the church, where people gather from villages all around to sing, play games, and observe the uniquemass of the church. It includes a procession through the church grounds and environs.

Coffee is a very important ceremonial drink. The "coffee ceremony" is common to the Ethiopians and Eritreans. Beans are roasted on the spot, ground, and brewed, served thick and rich in tiny ceramic cups with no handles. This amount of coffee can be finished in one gulp if drunk cold; but, traditionally it is drunk very slowly as conversation takes place. When the beans are roasted to smoking, they are passed around the table, where the smoke becomes a blessing on the diners. The traditional food served at these meals consists ofinjera, a spongy flat bread, served withwat, a spicy meat sauce.

Houses in rural areas are built mostly from rock and dirt, the most available resources, with structure provided by timber poles. The houses blend in easily with the natural surroundings. Many times the nearest water source is more than a kilometer away from the house. In addition, people must search for fuel for their fires throughout the surrounding area.

The Habesha people have a rich heritage of music and dance, using drums and stringed instruments tuned to apentatonic scale. Arts and crafts and secular music are performed mostly by artisans, who are regarded with suspicion. Sacred music is performed and icons are painted only by men trained in monasteries.

Abyssinians speak languages belonging to theEthiopian Semitic branch of theAfroasiatic family. Among these tongues is the classicalGe'ez language. The kingdom of Dʿmt wrote proto-Ge'ez in Epigraphic South Arabian as early as the 9th century BCE. Later, an independent script replaced it as early as the 5th century BCE.²

Ge'ez literature is considered to begin with the adoption ofChristianity in Ethiopia and Eritrea, as well as the civilization of Axum in the 4th century BCE during the reign of Ezana. While Ge'ez today is extinct and only used for liturgical purposes in theEritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church andEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Ge'ez language is ancestral toTigre andTigrinya languages.^[64]

Some historians in the past have labelled the Ethiopian Semitic languages as theAbyssinian languages.^[65] They are mainly spoken by theAmhara, theTigrayans, theTigre, theGurage, theArgobba and theHarari people.^[66] In antiquityGe'ez-speaking people inhabited theAksumite Empire; the ancient Semitic-speakingGafat inhabited Eastern Damot (East Welega) andWestern Shewa; the Galila clan of Aymallal (Soddo) inhabitedSouthwest Shewa; theZay inhabitedEast Shewa; theHarla who are the ancestors of Harari lived inSomalia; and the other ancient Argobba and Harari inhabitedShewa,Ifat, andAdal.^{[67][68][69][70]}

Throughout history, various European travelers such asJeronimo Lobo,James Bruce andMansfield Parkyns visitedAbyssinia. Their written accounts about their experiences include observations and descriptions of the Abyssinian customs and manners.

Cuisine

Habesha cuisine characteristically consists of vegetable and often very spicy meat dishes, usually in the form ofwat (alsow'et orwot), a thick stew, served atopinjera, a largesourdoughflatbread,^[71] which is about 50 centimeters (20 inches) in diameter and made out of fermentedteff flour.^[71] People of Ethiopia and Eritrea eat exclusively with their right hands, using pieces ofinjera to pick up bites of entrées and side dishes.^[71]

Fit-fit, orfir-fir, is a common breakfast dish. It is made from shreddedinjera orkitcha stir-fried with spices orwat. Another popular breakfast food isfatira. The delicacy consists of a large fried pancake made with flour, often with a layer of egg, eaten with honey.Chechebsa (orkita firfir) resembles apancake covered withberbere andniter kibbeh, or spices, and may be eaten with a spoon. Aporridge,genfo is another common breakfast dish. It is usually served in a large bowl with a dug-out made in the middle of the genfo and filled with spicedniter kibbeh.

Wat begins with a large amount of chopped redonion, which is simmered or sauteed in a pot. Once the onions have softened,niter kebbeh (or, in the case of vegan dishes,vegetable oil) is added. Following this,berbere is added to make a spicykeiy wat orkeyyih tsebhi. Turmeric is used instead ofbebere for a milderalicha wat or both are omitted when making vegetable stews,atkilt wat. Meat such asbeef (Amharic:ሥጋ,^[72]səga),chicken (Amharic:ዶሮ,^[73]doro) orTigrinya:ደርሆ, derho),fish (Amharic:ዓሣ,^[74]asa),goat orlamb (Amharic:በግ,^[75]beg orTigrinya:በጊ, beggi) is also added.Legumes such assplit peas (Amharic:ክክ,^[76]kək orTigrinya:ኪኪ, kikki) orlentils (Amharic:ምስር,^[77]məsər orbirsin); orvegetables such aspotatoes (Amharic:ድንች,^[78]Dənəch),carrots andchard (Amharic:ቆስጣ) are also used instead in vegan dishes.

Another distinctively Habesha dish^{[citation needed]} iskitfo (frequently spelledketfo). It consists of raw (or rare) beef mince marinated inmitmita (Amharic: ሚጥሚጣmīṭmīṭā, a very spicy chili powder similar to theberbere) andniter kibbeh.Gored gored is very similar tokitfo, but uses cubed rather than ground beef. TheEthiopian Orthodox Church prescribes a number offasting (tsomGe'ez:ጾም,ṣōm) periods, including Wednesdays, Fridays, and the entireLenten season; so Habesha cuisine contains many dishes that arevegan.^[79]

Dress

According toLeo Africanus, a greater number of the Abyssinians historically woresheephides, with the more honourable wearing the hides oflions,tigers andounces.^[80]Duarte Barbosa also attests that their clothes being of hides as the country was in wanting of clothes.^[81]Pedro Paez, aSpanishJesuit who resided in Ethiopia, described that the peasant women wore skins like their husbands and, in some areas, some woollen cloths five or six cubits long and three wide that they call "mahâc ", and they could quite fairly call it haircloth because it is much rougher than what Capuchin monks wear, as in Ethiopia they do not know how to make cloth, and the wool is not suitable for it as it is very coarse. They all go barefoot and often naked from the breasts up, with tiny glass beads of various colours strung so as to make a band two fingers in breadth around their necks.^[82]

Thehabesha kemis is the traditional attire of Habesha women.^[83][84] The ankle length dress is usually worn by Ethiopian and Eritrean women at formal events. It is made ofchiffon, and typically comes in white, grey or beige shades. Many women also wrap a shawl called anetela around the formal dress.

Thenetela ornetsela is a handmade cloth manyEthiopian women use to cover their head and shoulders when they wear clothing made out ofchiffon, especially when attending church. It is made up of two layers of fabric, unlikegabi, which is made out of four.Kuta is the male version.

AnEthiopian or Eritrean suit is the traditionalformal wear of Habesha men.^[85] It consists of a long sleeve, knee-length shirt, and matching pants. Most shirts are made with a Mandarin, band, or Nehru collar. The suit is made of chiffon, which is a sheersilk orrayon cloth. Thenetelashawl or akuta is wrapped around the suit.

The Habesha empire centered inAksum andAdwa was part of the world in which Christianity grew. The arrival of Christianity in Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea happened around the 4th century. The Aksumites, in fact, had been converted to Christianity hundreds of years before most of Europe. Many of their churches were cut into cliffs or from single blocks of stone, as they were inTurkey and in parts ofGreece, where Christianity had existed from its earliest years. The church is a central feature of communities and of each family's daily life. Each community has a church with apatron saint.

Ethiopia has often been mentioned in theBible. A well-known example of this is the story of theEthiopian eunuch as written inActs (8: 27): "Then the angel of the Lord said to Philip, Start out and go south to the road that leads down from Jerusalem to Gaza. So he set out and was on his way when he caught sight of an Ethiopian. This man was a eunuch, a high official of the Kandake (Candace) Queen of Ethiopia in charge of all her treasure." The passage continues by describing how Philip helped the Ethiopian understand one passage ofIsaiah that the Ethiopian was reading. After the Ethiopian received an explanation of the passage, he requested that Philip baptize him, which Philip obliged. QueenGersamot Hendeke VII (very similar to Kandake) was the Queen of Ethiopia from the year 42 to 52. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was founded in the 4th century bySyrian monks. Historically, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church have had strong ties with theCoptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria appointing the archbishop for the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church. They gained independence from theCoptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria in the 1950s, although theEritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church has recently reforged the link.

A number of unique beliefs and practices distinguish Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity from other Christian groups; for example, theArk of the Covenant is very important. Every Ethiopian church has a replica of the Ark. Also, the Ethiopian Church has a larger biblical canon than other churches.

Church services are conducted in Ge´ez, the ancient language of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Ge´ez is no longer a living language, its use now confined to liturgical contexts, occupying a similar place in Eritrean and Ethiopian church life toLatin in theRoman Catholic Church.

Other Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox practices include such things as fasting, prescribed prayers, and devotion to saints and angels. A child is never left alone until baptism and cleansing rituals are performed. Boys are baptized forty days after birth, whereas girls are baptized eighty days after birth.

Defrocked priests and deacons commonly function as diviners, who are the main healers. Spirit possession is common, affecting primarily women. Women are also the normal spirit mediums. Adebtera is anitinerant lay priest figure trained by the Church as ascribe,cantor, and often as a folk healer, who may also function in roles comparable to adeacon orexorcist. Folklore and legends ascribe the role of magician to the debtera as well.

A small number of Abyssinian Christians adhere to various forms ofPentecostalism orAnabaptism, collectively known asP'ent'ay.

The Ethiopian church places a heavier emphasis on Old Testament teachings than one might find in the Roman Catholic or Protestant churches, and its followers adhere to certain practices that one finds in Orthodox or ConservativeJudaism.^[86] Ethiopian Christians, like some otherEastern Christians, traditionally follow dietary rules that are similar to JewishKashrut, specifically with regard to how an animal is slaughtered. Similarly,pork is prohibited, though unlike Kashrut, Ethiopian cuisine does mixdairy products withmeat- which in turn makes it even closer toIslamic dietary laws (seeHalal). Women are prohibited from entering the church during theirmenses; they are also expected to cover their hair with a large scarf (orshash) while in church in keeping with1 Corinthians 11. As with Orthodoxsynagogues, men and women are seated separately in the Ethiopian church, with men on the left and women on the right (when facing the altar). However, women covering their heads and separation of the sexes in the Church building officially is common to manyOriental Orthodox,Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Christians and not unique to Judaism. Ethiopian Orthodox worshippers remove their shoes when entering a church, in accordance withExodus 3:5 (in whichMoses, while viewing theburning bush, is commanded to remove his shoes while standing on holy ground). Furthermore, both theSabbath (Saturday), and the Lord's Day (Sunday) are observed as holy, although more emphasis, because of theResurrection of Jesus Christ, is laid upon the Holy Sunday.

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Islam in Ethiopia and Eritrea dates to 615. During that year, a group of Muslims were counseled byMuhammad to escape persecution in Mecca andmigrate to Abyssinia, which was ruled by, in Muhammad's estimation, a pious Christian king (al-najashi). Muhammad's followers crossed the Red Sea and sought refuge in the Kingdom of Aksum, possibly settling atNegash, a place in present-day Tigray Region. Moreover, Islamic tradition states thatBilal, one of the foremost companions of Muhammad, was from Abyssinia, as were manynon-Arab Companions of Muhammad; in fact, Abyssinians were the single largest non-Arab ethnic group who were Muhammad's companions. Among these was Umm Ayman who cared for Muhammad during his infancy, a woman that he referred to as "mother".^{[citation needed]} Abyssinia was thus the earliest home outside of Arabia for the dispersal of the Islamic world faith. One third (34%) of Ethiopia's population are Muslims by last census (2007).

Most of Ethiopia and Eritrea's Muslims areSunni Muslims, much like the majority of theMuslim world, hence the beliefs and practices of the Muslims of Ethiopia and Eritrea are basically the same: embodied in theQur'an and theSunnah. There are alsoSufi orders present in Ethiopia. According to the 1994 census of Ethiopia (with similar numbers for the 1984 census), about a third of its population is adherent of Islam and members of the Muslim community can be found throughout the country. Islam in Ethiopia is the predominant religion in the regions ofSomali,Afar,Berta, and the section ofOromia east of theGreat Rift Valley, as well as inJimma. Islam in Eritrea is the predominant religion of all the ethnic groups except for the Tigrinya people, theBilen people, and theKunama people.^{[citation needed]}

The most important Islamic religious practices, such as the daily ritual prayers (ṣalāt) and fasting (Arabic:صومṣawm,Ethiopicጾም,ṣom – used by local Christians as well) during the holy month ofRamadan, are observed both in urban centers as well as in rural areas, among both settled peoples and nomads. Numerous Ethiopian Muslims perform the pilgrimage toMecca every year.

Judaism in Ethiopia is believed to date from very ancient times. Precisely what its early history was, however, remains obscure. The now dominantEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church claims it originated from the visit of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon back in the 10th century BCE. This visit is mentioned in the Hebrew Scriptures (I Kings 10:1),Sheba was a kingdom that stretched from Ethiopia to the south of the Yemen. Yemen is very close to Ethiopia across the Red Sea, and it has been recorded that modern Ethiopia has been heavily influenced by the ancient Sabean kingdom. Moreover, the details of the queen's visit, including the alleged theft of the Holy Ark as well as Solomon getting her pregnant with a child who established the "Solomonic" lineage in Ethiopia, as given in Christian Ethiopian tradition, were written in theKebra Nagast the Ethiopian chronicle of its early history. The oldest known existing copies of the book date from as far back as the 13th century. Jewish Ethiopians are mentioned in both theTorah (the first five books of theOld Testament) as well as the ChristianNew Testament. It is clear that the Jewish presence in Ethiopia dates back at least 2,500 years.

The Jewish Pre-settlement Theory essentially states that starting around the 8th century BCE until about the 5th century BCE, there was an influx of Jewish settlers both from Egypt & Sudan in the north, and southern Arabia in the east.^{[citation needed]}

The chief Semitic languages of Ethiopia also suggest an antiquity of Judaism in Ethiopia. "There still remains the curious circumstance that a number of Abyssinian words connected with religion – Hell,idol,Easter,purification,alms – are of Hebrew origin. These words must have been derived directly from a Jewish source, for the Abyssinian Church knows the scriptures only in a Ge'ez version made from the Septuagint."^[87]

Beta Israel traditions claim that the Ethiopian Jews are descended from the lineage of Moses himself, some of whose children and relatives are said to have separated from the other Children of Israel after the Exodus and gone southwards, or, alternatively or together with this, that they are descended from the tribe of Dan, which fled southwards down the Arabian coastal lands from Judaea at the time of the breakup of the Kingdom of Israel into two kingdoms in the 10th century BCE. (precipitated by the oppressive demands ofRehoboam, King Solomon's heir), or at the time of the destruction of the northern kingdom of Israel in the 8th century BCE. Certainly there was trade as early as the time of King Solomon down along the Red Sea to the Yemen and even as far as India, according to the Bible, and there would, therefore, have been Jewish settlements at various points along the trade routes. There is definite archaeological evidence of Jewish settlements and of their cultural influence on both sides of the Red Sea well at least 2,500 years ago, both along the Arabian coast and in the Yemen, on the eastern side, and along the southern Egyptian and Sudanese coastal regions. Modern day Ethiopian Jews are adherents ofHaymanot, a sect that is close toKaraite Judaism.

Some Ethiopian Jews, especially thoseliving inIsrael, followmainstream Judaism, mainly due to the Israeli government making 'proper conversion' a prerequisite for being recognized as Jews.

• Naming conventions in Ethiopia and Eritrea

^ The source texts, RIE 185 and 189, are unvocalized. These vocalizations are from Rainer Voigt and Francis Breyer.^[88][3]

• This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain. Country Studies.Federal Research Division.
• Pankhurst, Dr. Richard."History of Northern Ethiopia - and the Establishment of the Italian Colony or Eritrea".Civic Webs Virtual Library. Archived fromthe original on March 23, 2005. RetrievedMarch 25, 2005.
•  This article incorporatespublic domain material fromThe World Factbook.CIA.

• Habesha peoples
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