Gyumri (Armenian:Գյումրի,[a]pronounced[ɡjumˈɾi]) is an urban municipal community and thesecond-largest city inArmenia, serving as the administrative center ofShirak Province in the northwestern part of the country. By the end of the 19th century, when the city was known asAlexandropol,[b] it became the largest city of Russian-ruledEastern Armenia with a population above that ofYerevan. The city became renowned as a cultural hub, while also carrying significance as a major center of Russian troops during Russo-Turkish wars of the 19th century.
The city underwent a tumultuous period during and afterWorld War I. While Russian forces withdrew from theSouth Caucasus due to theOctober Revolution, the city became host to large numbers of Armenian refugees fleeing theArmenian genocide, in particular hosting 22,000 orphaned children in around 170 orphanage buildings. It was renamedLeninakan[c] during the Soviet period and became a major industrial and textile center inSoviet Armenia.[3] The city's population rapidly grew to above 200,000 prior to the1988 Spitak earthquake, when it was devastated, with the city's population being reduced to 121,976 as of the 2011 census. The city was renamed Gyumri under modern independent Armenia soon after the breakup of the Soviet Union, and post-earthquake reconstruction efforts continue. As of the 2022 census, the population of the city was 112,301.[1]
Today, Gyumri continues to grapple with the lasting effects of the 1988 earthquake, but remains known as the cultural hub of Armenia due to the many artists and craftsman who originated from the city. The city is also in particular notable for the largeKumayri historic district that managed to mostly survive the 1988 earthquake, dating back mainly to the 19th century and being one of the few surviving places in the world with authentic urbanArmenian architecture.[3]
The area of modern-day Gyumri was originally known asKumayri (Armenian:Կումայրի) during the period of the Kingdom ofUrartu. Over time, the name became disrupted through phonetic changes to Kumri, then Gumri, and finallyGyumri. In 1837, Gyumri was renamedAlexandropol after Czar Nicholas I's wife, PrincessAlexandra Fyodorovna. Between 1924 and 1990, the city was known asLeninakan in honor ofVladimir Lenin. Following independence, the original nameKumayri was used until 1992, whenGyumri was chosen as the name of the city.[4][3]
Archaeological excavations conducted throughout the Soviet period have shown that the area of modern-day Gyumri has been populated since at least the third millennium BC. The area was mentioned asKumayri in the historicUrartian inscriptions dating back to the 8th century BC.[5] Kumayri may be identical with the city of Gymnias or Gumnias mentioned byXenophon in hisAnabasis.[6]
At the decline of theUrartu Kingdom by the second half of the 6th century BC, Kumayri became part of theAchaemenid Empire. The remains of a royal settlement found just to the south of Gyumri near the village ofBeniamin dating back to the 5th to 2nd centuries BC, are a great example of the Achemenid influence in the region. However, at the beginning of the 5th century BC, Kumayri became part of theSatrapy of Armenia under the rule of theOrontids. An alternative theory suggests that Kumayri has been formed as an urban settlement in the late 5th century BC, ca. 401 BC, byGreek colonists.[7]
Later in 331 BC, the entire territory was included in theAyrarat province ofAncient Armenian Kingdom as part of the Shirak canton. Between 190 BC and 1 AD Kumayri was under the rule of theArtaxiad dynasty of Armenia. During the 1st century AD, Shirak was granted to theKamsarakan family, who ruled over Kumayri during theArsacid Kingdom of Armenia.[8]
Following the partition of Armenia in 387 between the Byzantines and the Persians, and as a result of the fall of the Arsacid Kingdom of Armenia in 428, Shirak including Kumayri became part of theSasanian Empire of Persia. In 658 AD, at the height of the Arab Islamic invasions, Kumayri was conquered during theMuslim conquest of Persia to become part of theEmirate of Armenia under theUmayyad Caliphate.[9]
Kumayri was a significant and quite-developed urban settlement during theMiddle Ages. According to the Armenian scholarGhevond the Historian, the town was a center of the Armenian rebellion led byArtavazd Mamikonian against the Islamic ArabCaliphate, between 733 and 755. After 2 centuries of Islamic rule over Armenia, theBagratids declared independence in 885 establishing theBagratid Kingdom of Armenia.[10][11] Kumayri entered e new era of growth and progress, particularly when the nearby city of Ani became the capital of the kingdom in 961. By the second half of the 10th century, Kumayri was under the influence of the ArmenianPahlavuni family, who were descendants of the Kamsarakans. The Pahlavunis had a great contribution in the progress of Shirak with the foundation of many fortresses, monastic complexes, educational institutions, etc.[12][13]
After the fall of Armenia to theByzantine Empire in 1045 and later to theSeljuk invaders in 1064. Under the foreign rulers, the town had gradually lost its significance during the following centuries, until the establishment of theZakarid Principality of Armenia in 1201 under theGeorgian protectorate. During the Zakarid rule, the Eastern Armenian territories, mainly Lori and Shirak, entered into a new period of growth and stability, becoming a trade center between the east and the west. After the Mongols capturedAni in 1236, Armenia turned into aMongol protectorate as part of theIlkhanate, and the Zakarids became vassals to theMongols. After the fall of the Ilkhanate in the mid-14th century, the Zakarid princes ruled over Lori, Shirak, and Ararat plain until 1360 when they fell to the invading Turkic tribes.[14]
By the last quarter of the 14th century, theAg Qoyunlu SunniOghuz Turkic tribe took over Armenia, including Shirak. In 1400,Timur invaded Armenia and Georgia, and captured more than 60,000 of the survived local people as slaves. Many districts including Shirak were depopulated.[14] In 1410, Armenia fell under the control of theKara Koyunlu Shia Oghuz Turkic tribe. According to the Armenian historianThomas of Metsoph, although the Kara Koyunlu levied heavy taxes against the Armenians, the early years of their rule were relatively peaceful and some reconstruction of towns took place.[15]
Saint Alexandra the Martyr's Russian Orthodox church, built in 1837–42
In 1501, most of theEastern Armenian territories including Kumayri were conquered by the emergingSafavid dynasty of Iran led by ShahIsmail I.[16] Soon after in 1502, Kumayri became part of the newly formedErivan Beglarbegi, a new administrative territory of Iran formed by the Safavids. During the first half of the 18th century, Kumayri became part of theErivan Khanate under the rule of theAfsharid dynasty and later under theQajar dynasty of Persia.
In June 1804, theRussian forces controlled over Shirak region at the beginning of theRusso-Persian War of 1804 and 1813. Kumayri became officially part of the Russian Empire at theTreaty of Gulistan signed on 1 January 1813 between Imperial Russia and Qajar Persia.
During the period of Russian rule, Gyumri became one of the developing cities in theTranscaucasus. In 1829, in the aftermath of theRusso-Turkish War, there was a big influx of Armenian population, as around 3,000 families who had migrated from territories in the Ottoman Empire -in particular from the towns ofKars,Erzurum, andDoğubeyazıt- settled in and around Gyumri. The Russian poetAlexander Pushkin visited Gyumri during his journey toErzurum in 1829.
Surb Nshan Church of 1870
In 1837 RussianTsar Nicholas I arrived in Gyumri and changed the name intoAlexandropol. The name was chosen in honour of Tsar Nicholas I's wife, PrincessCharlotte of Prussia, who had changed her name toAlexandra Fyodorovna after converting toOrthodox Christianity.
A majorRussian fortress was built on the site in 1837. Alexandropol was finally formed as a town in 1840 to become the center of the newly establishedAlexandropol Uyezd, experiencing rapid growth during its first decade. In 1849, the Alexandropol Uyezd became part of theErivan Governorate. The town was an important outpost for the Imperial Russian armed forces in theTranscaucasus where their military barracks were established (e.g., at Poligons, Severski, Kazachi Post). The Russians built theSev Berd fortress at the western edge of the city during the 1830s in response to theRusso-Turkish War of 1828–1829.
Alexandropol had been quickly transformed to become one of the major centers of the Russian troops during theRusso-Turkish War of 1877–78. After the establishment of the railway station in 1899, Alexandropol witnessed significant growth and became the largest city in Eastern Armenia. By the end of the 19th century, Alexandropol was home to 430 shopping stores, several workshops, cultural institutions, a girl's gymnasium, a commercial school, a theater, and leather, bear, and soap enterprises.[17]
In 1902, the first bank in the city was opened. Until the sovietization of Armenia in 1920, Alexandropol had 31 manufacturing centers including beer, soap, textile, etc. After theOctober Revolution of 1917 and the Russian withdrawal from theSouth Caucasus, the Ottoman forces launched a new offensive capturing the city of Alexandropol on 11 May 1918, during theCaucasus Campaign inWorld War I. However, the Ottomans withdrew from the city on 24 December 1918, as stipulated by theArmistice of Mudros.[citation needed] On 6 December 1918, the Armenian army reoccupied the city.[18]
The newly establishedRepublic of Armenia proclaimed on 28 May 1918, included the city of Alexandropol. On 10 May 1920, the local Bolshevik Armenians aided by the Muslim population, attempted acoup d'état in Alexandropol against the Dashnak government of Armenia. Theuprising was suppressed by the Armenian government on May 14 and its leaders were executed. However, duringanother Turkish invasion, Turkish troops attacked Alexandropol and occupied the city on 7 November 1920. Armenia was forced to sign theTreaty of Alexandropol on December 3 to stop the Turkish advance towards Yerevan, however a concurrent Soviet invasion led to the fall of the Armenian government on December 2. The Turkish forces withdrew from Alexandropol after theTreaty of Kars was signed in October 1921 by the unrecognized Soviet and Turkish governments.[19]
Rizhkov Street in central Gyumri
UnderSoviet rule, the name of the city was changed in 1924 to Leninakan after the deceased Soviet leaderVladimir Lenin. The city suffered anearthquake in 1926, when many of its significant buildings were destroyed including the Greek church of Saint George.
Leninakan became a major industrial center in theArmenian Soviet Socialist Republic and its second-largest city, after the capital Yerevan. The city suffered major damage during the1988 Armenian earthquake, which devastated many parts of the country. The earthquake occurred along a known thrust fault with a length of 60 kilometers (37 mi). Itsstrike was parallel to the Caucasus range and dipped to the north-northeast.Bruce Bolt, a seismologist and a professor of earth and planetary science at theUniversity of California, Berkeley, walked the fault scarp in 1992 and found that the vertical displacement measured 1 m (3 ft 3 in) along most of the length with the southwest end reaching 1.6 m (5 ft 3 in).[20]
The earthquake had a disastrous impact on the city, as many buildings are still not recovered. As of 2014[update], according to some news websites, between 4,000 and 5,000 residents of Gyumri remain homeless, although there are no official figures provided by the local authorities of the city.[21]
Gyumri was celebrated as the Capital of Culture of theCommonwealth of Independent States for 2013. Major events took place in the city on 30 June 2013.[23]
Gyumri is 126 kilometres (78 miles) north of the capitalYerevan at the central part of theShirak plateau. It has an approximate height of 1,550 metres (5,090 feet)above sea level, the high altitude line being 1,500 metres (4,900 feet). TheAkhurian River passes through the western suburbs. The Shirak plateau is surrounded with thePambak Mountains from the east andAragats volcanic range from the south. The city of Gyumri is 196 kilometres (122 miles) away from theBlack Sea. The surrounding lands near the city are rich intufa,basalt andclay.[citation needed]
Gyumri has ahumid continental climate (KöppenDfb), characterized by freezing and snowy winters and warm summers. The annual precipitation averages 510 millimetres or 20.08 inches.
Climate data for Gyumri, 1,523 metres (5,000 ft) asl (1991-2020 normals)
The population of Gyumri has gradually grown since 1840 after gaining the status of town. A huge decline of the population was due to the disastrous earthquake of 1988. The dialect of Gyumri is a variant ofKarin dialect, closely related toWestern Armenian, as manyArmenian genocide survivors migrated to Alexandropol.[30]
Historical population and ethnic composition of Gyumri
Russian church of the Seversky 18th Dragoon RegimentSaint Gregory ChurchSaint Arsenije Russian churchSaint Jacob of Nisibis ChurchCathedral of the Holy Martyrs
The presence of the small Russian Orthodox community along with the Russian military base personnel is marked with theSaint Alexandra the Martyr's Church (within the Russian base), the Church of Saint Michael the Archangel and the Church of Saint Arsenije.[42]
However, many historic churches in Gyumri were either ruined or destroyed, including:
Dprevank Monastery and the Basilic Church of old Kumayri dating back to the 7th century: it was the first ever church built in old Kumayri. However, the monastic complex was completely destroyed in 1852, during the construction of Russian military barracks.
Saint George Greek Orthodox Church, opened in 1850. It was completely destroyed in 1933–34.
Holy Mother of God Armenian Catholic Church, built between 1849 and 1854. Although standing, the building was turned into a private residence during the Soviet period.
Russian church of the Seversky 18th Dragoon Regiment, built in 1856. It was consecrated in 1901 and destroyed during the Soviet period.
Russian church of the Caucasian 7th Rifle Regiment, built during the 1850s. It was completely destroyed during the Soviet period.
Russian church of the Caucasian 8th Rifle Regiment, built during the 1850s. It was completely destroyed during the Soviet period.
Russian church of the Baku 154th Infantry Regiment, built during the 1850s. It was completely destroyed during the Soviet period.
As of 2017[update], Gyumri is home to the following church buildings:[43]
Saint Alexandra the Martyr's Church within the complex of the Russian military base, built in 1837–42. It was completely renovated and reopened on May 8, 2008.
Church of the Holy Saviour or Surp Amenaprkich, constructed between 1859–1873: designed to resemble theCathedral of Ani. The church was heavily damaged by the 1988 Spitak earthquake and is currently under reconstruction.
Surp Nshan or Holy Sign Church: Opened in 1870.
Saint Gregory the Illuminator's Church, built between 1875 and 1880.
Saint Michael the Archangel Russian Orthodox Church, locally known asPlplan Zham (the Shimmering Chapel), built between 1875 and 1880.
Throughout centuries, Kumayri-Gyumri was labelled as the "city of crafts and arts",[44] being famous for its schools, theaters andgusans.
"October" cinema hall
In 1865, an amateur theatre group in Gyumri performed H. Karinyan's "Shushanik". In 1912, Gyumri was home to the first opera show ever staged in Armenia, when composerArmen Tigranian presentedAnoush to the public in Alexandropol. In 1923, the first Armenian opera theatre was opened in Gyumri (where the firstballet performance in Armenia took place in 1924[45]), while the Vardan Ajemian State Drama Theatre was founded in 1928. Prominent directorsRuben Simonov andVardan Ajemian, actorsMher Mkrtchyan,Azat Sherents andVarduhi Varderesyan worked in theatre. The theatre's new building was opened in 1972. The artistic director isNikolay Tsaturyan. Gyumri is known for its 19th-century architecture andurban constructions.[44]
The first printing house of Gyumri was founded in 1876 by G. Sanoyan and operated until 1918. It published literary works (includingAvetik Isahakyan's first book), calendars, textbooks. Another printing house, Ayg (founded 1892), published historical books and the first periodical of Gyumri,Akhuryan.[46]
Gyumri is home to the Gyumri Biennial, organized by the artist Azat Sargsyan and the Gyumri Center of Contemporary Art (GCCA).[47] Gyumri was officially declaredCommonwealth of Independent States cultural capital in 2013.[48]
The city of Gyumri has a great contribution inArmenian folk music. Throughout the 19th century, Alexandrapol was considered the center of folk and traditional Armenian music. The musical culture of Alexandrapol has greatly influenced the art ofJivani, who is considered the founder of modern Armenian folk music during the 19th century. Another 19th-centuryashikSheram who was born in Alexandropol, is one of the earliestgusans of traditional Armenian music in the modern history of Armenia. He is one of the most celebrated Armenian composers of folk music.
The mystic philosopher of AlexandropolGeorge Gurdjieff has produced many influential works of music during the 20th century.
Different genres of music became popular in the city during the 2nd half of the 20th century.Rock,folk rock andethnic rock are widely popular through the local famous rock bandBambir, active since 1978.[49]
TheRenaissance international music festival of Gyumri is held annually since 2009.
In 2011WhoCares, asupergroup formed byIan Gillan andTony Iommi with the participation of a great number of rock artists, raised money to build the "Octet" music school in Gyumri (opened two years later).[52]
Several famous Armenian films were shot in Gyumri such asThe Tango of Our Childhood (Armenian:Մեր մանկության տանգոն),Triangle (Armenian:Եռանկյունի),The Dawn of the Sad Street (Armenian:Տխուր փողոցի լուսաբացը),The Merry Bus (Armenian:Ուրախ ավտոբուս) and other. The city has preserved some locations where scenes from these films were filmed.[53]
Kumayri historic district: is the old part of Gyumri with its unique architecture. It has more than a thousand buildings dating back to the 18th and 19th centuries. The district is one of few places in the Republic of Armenia, and the world, with authentic urbanArmenian architecture. Almost all the structures of the Kumayri district have survived the two major earthquakes in 1926 and 1988 respectively. The historic district of Kumayri occupies the central and western part of modern-day Gyumri.
Sev Berd or theBlack Fortress (Armenian:Սև բերդ;Russian:Чёрная Кре́пость,Chornaya Krepost): is an abandonedRussian imperial fortress in Gyumri built between 1834 and 1847, located 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) east of the closedborder with Turkey. It was erected in response to theRusso-Turkish War of 1828–1829. Currently, it is a national cultural heritage monument of Armenia, used as an art and cultural center[54]
The restoration process of the damaged buildings of Gyumri has been spearheaded byEarthwatch to preserve the city's unique architecture.[55]
In spite of suffering severe damages during the disastrousearthquake in December 1988, Gyumri is still preserving its own architectural characteristics.
Monument at the entrance to the city
Victory Park and Mother-Armenia Monument
St. Michael Church sculpture, Hill of honor
Rustaveli Street the Kumayri historic district
Kirk Kerkorian (formerly Alexandrovsky) Street of Kumayri district[56][57][58]
Rentable horse-drawncarriage at the center of Gyumri
The residents are Gyumri are widely known as conservative people. Traditions and local customs are widely preserved by the local citizens. It is very common among Armenians to refer to thedignity of Gyumri (Armenian:Գյումրվա թասիբGyumrva tasib).[59]
Gyumri is considered to be the "laughter and humor capital" of Armenia.[60] The jokes and anecdotes of local humorists likeJgher Khachik andPoloz Mukuch are widely known by the local citizens. Many works have been published to narrate about the legacy and heritage of the humor in Gyumri.[61]
The city celebrates the "Gyumri Day" annually on the first Sunday of October. It is marked with many cultural and entertainment activities.
Gyumri is served by the internationalShirak Airport, about 5 kilometres (3.1 miles) to the southeast of the city center. It was inaugurated in 1961 and is the second largest airport in Armenia. At the beginning of 2006, the government of Armenia felt the importance of having a second international airport, when adverse weather conditions meant that many flights had to be diverted from Yerevan'sZvartnots International Airport into Gyumri's Shirak Airport. New air traffic control equipment allowed airport workers to identify planes in a 400-kilometre (250-mile) radius.[62]
Following moderate use in 2005 and 2006 during which annual passenger traffic was at about 46,000 and several hundred aircraft movements took place each year, the airport's activity quickly declined again to the point where in 2016 passenger traffic amounted to only 12,421 and a mere 54 aircraft movements took place. However, in the beginning of 2017, as part of new efforts to develop Gyumri and its tourism industry, the government focused on revitalizing the airport. Multiple new airlines began operating flights to the airport, includingTaron Avia, a new Armenian airline based in Gyumri. In order attract more customers, the Ministry of Nature Protection made meteorological services free for all airlines flying to Gyumri, lowering ticket costs.[63] TheGyumri Technology Center also participated in helping revitalize the airport by adding interior design details to improve the airport's look.[64]
The railway junction of Gyumri is the oldest and the largest one in Armenia. It was formed in 1897 and the first railway link to Alexandropol that connected the city with Tiflis was completed in 1899. The rail line was then extended from Alexandropol to Yerevan (in 1902), Kars (in 1902),Jolfa (in 1906), andTabriz. As a result, Alexandropol became an important rail hub.
As of 2017[update], theGyumri Railway Station operates regular trips to Yerevan andBatumi. The South Caucasus Railway CJSC, is the current operator of the railway sector in Armenia.[65]
Public transport is dominated by the private sector in Gyumri. Public transit is mainly served by public vans, locally-known asmarshrutka. Most of themarshrutkas Russian-madeGAZelle vans with 13 seats that operate with certain routes and stops. As of 2017, the one-way trip fee is AMD 100 (around US$0.25). Passengers need to pay the money directly to the driver when getting in the vehicle, with no established ticketing system.
The central station of the city serves as bus terminal for inter-city transport, serving outbound routes towards other major cities and towns in Armenia, as well as cities inGeorgia. The M-7 Motorway passes across the Shirak Province from east to west, connecting the city of Gyumri with the rest of Armenia.
Armenia is among the top 10 safest countries where one can wander around and go home alone safely at night. Taxis are available in the city at any time of the day or night.[66]
During the pre-Soviet era, Alexandropol was considered the third-largest trade and cultural center in Transcaucasia afterTiflis andBaku (Yerevan would not rise to prominence until being proclaimed as the capital of independentArmenia in 1918 and theArmenian SSR in 1920).[67] At the end of the 19th century, the population of Alexandropol had grown to 32,100 inhabitants, with a majority of Armenians.
The economy of Gyumri is mainly based on industry and construction. However, tourism and banking services are also among the developed sectors in the city.
The industrial sector in the provincial center Gyumri includes the production of building materials (tufa and basalt), hosiery and textile manufacturing, food processing and dairy products, alcoholic drinks, electronic machines, etc. The largest industrial plant in Gyumri is theGyumri-Beer Brewery opened in 1972. The factory produces a variety oflager beer under the brandsGyumri,Ararat andAleksandrapol.[68] The city is also home to the "Factory of Bending Machinses" opened in 1912, the "Arshaluys" hosiery manufacturing enterprise established in 1926, the "Karhat" machine tools plant opened in 1959, the "Chap Chemical LLC" since 1999, the "Armtex Group" clothing factory since 2000, and the "Lentex" hosiery manufacturing plant is operating since 2001. Other industrial firms of the city include the "Aleqpol" factory for dairy products, the "Anusharan" confectionery plant, and the "Gold Plast" plant for building materials.
The nearby village ofAkhuryan is home to the "Lusastgh-Sugar" factory (opened in 2010), the largest sugar producers in the Southern Caucasus region.
Gyumri has a large number of educational institutions, following the capital Yerevan in the number of educational institutions. It is considered the cultural and educational center of northern Armenia.
As of 2017, Gyumri is home to the following higher educational centers:
In 2014, theGyumri Technology Center was opened in the city, in an attempt to turn Gyumri into a regional and international center of information and high technologies.[70]
The Gyumri branch ofTumo Center for Creative Technologies was opened in May 2015, following a fundraising initiative byShant TV.[71] After three years of renovations, the center was moved to its permanent location, the historic theater building of Gyumri, in 2020.[72][73]
As of 2017[update], the city is home to 47 public education schools, 23 pre-school kindergartens, as well as 7 special schools for music.
Futsal is also very popular in Gyumri. Being one of the most successful Futsal teams in Armenia, FC Gyumri played at theArmenian Futsal Premier League. Starting from 2017–18 season, FC Gyumri became known asShirak Futsal, representing the futsal branch ofFC Shirak. The newly foundedSh.S.U. Futsal -representing theShirak State University- will also participate in the domestic league competition. The futsal teams of Gyumri regularly play their home games at the Armen Sargsyan Sports Hall, located in the Ani district at the northwest of the city.
Gyumri has made a major contribution to the sporting life of Armenia. Many Olympic and world champion wrestlers, weightlifters and boxers are from Gyumri. The city is notable for its worldwide champions in individual sports, such asRobert Emmiyan in long jump,Yurik Vardanyan andNazik Avdalyan in weightlifting andArtur Aleksanyan inGreco-Roman wrestling.
Many special sport schools are serving the young generation of Gyumri such as the Robert Emmiyan school of athletics, Levon Ishtoyan football school, Tigran Petrosian school of chess, Ludvig Mnatsakanyan school of winter sports, Artur Aleksanyan school of wrestling, Yurik Vardanyan school of weightlifting, Aleksan Haobyan school of tennis and table tennis, as well as other special schools for boxing, artistic gymnastics, sambo-judo, fencing, and chess. The city is also home to the Gyumri Swimming Complex. The National Federation of Black Belts ofAikido (NFBBA) is based in Gyumri since its establishment in 2012.
The Gyumri State Sports College of Olympic Reserve and Gyumri School of Sport Masters are among the prominent sport schools in Armenia that produced many champions in several individual sports.
^[Book: The Arab Campaign of Armenia, Author: Ghevond the Historian (8th century), published in 1857, Paris (Ղևոնդ պատմագիր, Արշաւանք արաբաց ի Հայս, Փարիզ, 1857)]
^(in Armenian) Arakelyan, Babken N. "Բագրատունյաց թագավորության բարգավաճումը" ("The Flourishing of the Bagratuni Kingdom").History of the Armenian People. vol. iii. Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1976, p. 53.
^Kouymjian, Dickran (1997), "Armenia from the Fall of the Cilician Kingdom (1375) to the Forced Migration under Shah Abbas (1604)" inThe Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume II: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century, ed.Richard G. Hovannisian, New York: St. Martin's Press, p. 4.ISBN1-4039-6422-X.
^Hovannisian, Richard, ed. (2003).Armenian Karin/Erzerum. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publ. p. 48.ISBN9781568591513.Thus, even today the Erzerum dialect is widely spoken in the northernmost districts of the Armenian republic as well as in the Akhalkalak (Javakheti; Javakhk) and Akhaltskha (Akhaltsikh) districts of southern Georgia
^"Weekly – . ". Demoscope.ru. Retrieved15 December 2014.
^Кавказский календарь на 1910 год [Caucasian calendar for 1910] (in Russian) (65th ed.). Tiflis: Tipografiya kantselyarii Ye.I.V. na Kavkaze, kazenny dom. 1910. p. 178. Archived fromthe original on 15 March 2022.
^Кавказский календарь на 1917 год [Caucasian calendar for 1917] (in Russian) (72nd ed.). Tiflis: Tipografiya kantselyarii Ye.I.V. na Kavkaze, kazenny dom. 1917. pp. 214–221. Archived fromthe original on 4 November 2021.
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