TheGupta Empire was an Indian empire during the classical period of theIndian subcontinent which existed from the mid 3rd century to mid 6th century CE. At its zenith, the dynasty ruled over an empire that spanned much of the northern Indian subcontinent.[18] This period has been considered as theGolden Age of India by some historians,[19] although this characterisation has been disputed by others.[note 1][21][22] The ruling dynasty of the empire was founded byGupta.
The high points of this period are the great cultural developments which took place primarily during the reigns ofSamudragupta,Chandragupta II andKumaragupta I. ManyHinduepics andliterary sources, such as theMahabharata andRamayana, were canonised during this period.[23] The Gupta period produced scholars such asKalidasa,[24]Aryabhata,Varahamihira andVatsyayana, who made significant advancements in many academic fields.[25][26][27]Science and political administration reached new heights during theGupta era.[26] The period, sometimes described asPax Gupta, gave rise to achievements in architecture, sculpture, and painting that "set standards of form and taste [that] determined the whole subsequent course of art, not only inIndia but far beyond her borders".[28] Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established the region as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in India andSoutheast Asia.[citation needed] ThePuranas, earlier long poems on a variety of subjects, are also thought to have been committed to written texts around this period.[28][29] Hinduism was followed by the rulers and the Brahmins flourished in the Gupta empire but the Guptas were tolerant towards people of other faiths as well.[30]
The empire eventually died out because of factors such as substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories, as well as the invasion by theHuna peoples (Kidarites andAlchon Huns) fromCentral Asia.[31][32] After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms.
The homeland of the Guptas is uncertain.[33] According to one theory, they originated in the present-day lower-Doab region ofUttar Pradesh,[34][a] where most of the inscriptions and coin hoards of the early Gupta emperors have been discovered.[35][36] This theory is also supported by thePurana, as argued by the proponents, that mention the territory of the early Gupta emperors asPrayaga,Saketa, andMagadha areas in theGanges basin.[37][38] The recently found silver coin ofSri Gupta in Uttar Pradesh further attest the origin of Guptas aroundKāśī–Kannauj region and his rule was only limited to Kāśī (present dayVaranasi).[a]
Another theory locates the Gupta homeland in the present-dayBengal region in Ganges basin, based on the account of the 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monkYijing. According to Yijing, king Che-li-ki-to (identified with the dynasty's founderShriGupta) built a temple for Chinese pilgrims near Mi-li-kia-si-kia-po-no (apparently a transcription ofMriga-shikha-vana). Yijing states that this temple was located more than 40yojanas east ofNalanda, which would mean it was situated somewhere in the modern Bengal region.[39] Another proposal is that the early Gupta kingdom extended from Prayaga in the west to northern Bengal in the east.[40]
The Gupta records do not mention the dynasty'svarna (social class).[41] Some historians, such asA.S. Altekar, have theorised that they were ofVaishya origin, as certain ancient Indian texts prescribe the name "Gupta" for the members of the Vaishya varna.[42][43] According to historianR. S. Sharma, the Vaishyas – who were traditionally associated with trade – may have become rulers after resisting oppressive taxation by the previous rulers.[44] Critics of the Vaishya-origin theory point out that the suffix Gupta features in the names of several non-Vaishyas before as well as during the Gupta period,[45] and the dynastic name "Gupta" may have simply derived from the name of the dynasty's first kingGupta.[46] Some scholars, such asS. R. Goyal, theorise that the Guptas wereBrahmins, because they had matrimonial relations with Brahmins, but others reject this evidence as inconclusive.[47] Based on thePune and Riddhapur inscriptions of the Gupta princessPrabhavatigupta, some scholars believe that the name of her paternalgotra (clan) was "Dharana", but an alternative reading of these inscriptions suggests that Dharana was thegotra of her mother Kuberanaga.[48]
Queen Kumaradevi and KingChandragupta I, depicted on a gold coin
Gupta (Gupta script: In theAllahabad Pillar inscription, Gupta and his successor Ghatotkacha are described asMaharaja ("Great King"), while the next king Chandragupta I is called aMaharajadhiraja ("King of Great Kings"). In the later period, the titleMaharaja was used by feudatory rulers, which has led to suggestions that Gupta and Ghatotkacha were vassals (possibly of theKushan Empire).[54] However, there are several instances of paramount sovereigns using the titleMaharaja, in both pre-Gupta and post-Gupta periods, so this cannot be said with certainty. That said, there is no doubt that Gupta and Ghatotkacha held a lower status and were less powerful than Chandragupta I.[55]
Chandragupta I married theLicchavi princess Kumaradevi, which may have helped him extend his political power and dominions, enabling him to adopt the prestigious titleMaharajadhiraja.[56] According to the dynasty's official records, he was succeeded by his sonSamudragupta. However, the discovery of the coins issued by a Gupta emperor namedKacha have led to some debate on this topic: according to one theory, Kacha was another name for Samudragupta; another possibility is that Kacha was a rival claimant to the throne.[57]
Gupta script inscriptionMaharaja Sri Gupta ("Great King, Lord Gupta"), mentioning the first ruler of the dynasty, kingGupta. Inscription bySamudragupta on theAllahabad Pillar, where Samudragupta presents king Gupta as his great-grandfather. Dated circa 350 CE.[58]
Samudragupta succeeded his father around 335 or 350 CE, and ruled untilc. 375.[59] The Allahabad Pillar inscription, composed by his courtierHarisena, credits him with extensive conquests.[60] The inscription asserts that Samudragupta uprooted 8 kings ofĀryāvarta, the northern region, including theNagas.[61] It further claims that he subjugated all the kings of the forest region, which was most probably located in central India.[62] It also credits him with defeating 12 rulers ofDakshinapatha, the southern region: the exact identification of several of these kings is debated among modern scholars,[63] but it is clear that these kings ruled areas located on the eastern coast of India.[64] The inscription suggests that Samudragupta advanced as far as thePallava kingdom in the south, and defeated Vishnugopa, the Pallava regent ofKanchi.[65] During this southern campaign, Samudragupta most probably passed through the forest tract of central India, reached the eastern coast in present-dayOdisha, and then marched south along the coast of theBay of Bengal.[66]
The inscription also mentions that several foreign kings tried to please Samudragupta by personal attendance, offered him their daughters in marriage (or according to another interpretation, gifted him maidens[70]), and sought the use of theGaruda-depicting Gupta seal for administering their own territories.[71] However, this is likely an exaggeration, and Samudragupta's panegyrist appears to have described acts of diplomacy as ones of subservience. For example, the King ofSimhala is listed among these foreign rulers, but it is known that from Chinese sources that the Simhala kingMeghavarna merely sent presents to the Gupta emperor requesting his permission to build a Buddhist monastery; he did not express subservience.[72]
Samudragupta appears to have beenVaishnavite, as attested by hisEran inscription,[73][74] and performed severalBrahmanical ceremonies.[75] The Gupta records credit him with making generous donations of cows and gold.[73] He performed theAshvamedha ritual (horse sacrifice), which was used by the ancient Indian kings and emperors to prove their imperial sovereignty, and issued gold coins (seeCoinage below) to mark this performance.[76]
The Allahabad Pillar inscription presents Samudragupta as a wise king and strict administrator, who was also compassionate enough to help the poor and the helpless.[77] It also alludes to the king's talents as a musician and a poet, and calls him the "king of poets".[78] Such claims are corroborated by Samudragupta's gold coins, which depict him playing aveena.[79]
Samudragupta appears to have directly controlled a large part of theIndo-Gangetic Plain in present-day India, as well as a substantial part of central India.[80] His empire comprised a number of monarchical and tribal tributary states of northern India, and of the south-eastern coastal region of India.[81][64]
Ramagupta is known from a sixth-century play, theDevichandragupta, in which he surrenders his queen to the enemySakas, forcing his brother Chandragupta to sneak into the enemy camp to rescue her and kill the Saka king. The historicity of these events is unclear, but Ramagupta's existence is confirmed by threeJain statues found atDurjanpur, with inscriptions referring to him as theMaharajadhiraja. A large number of his copper coins also have been found from theEran-Vidisha region and classified in five distinct types, which include theGaruda,[83]Garudadhvaja,lion andborder legend types. TheBrahmi legends on these coins are written in the early Gupta style.[84]
According to the Gupta records, among his sons, Samudragupta nominated prince Chandragupta II, born of queenDattadevi, as his successor. Chandragupta II,Vikramaditya (Brave as the Sun), ruled from 375 until 415. He married a Kadamba princess ofKuntala and of Naga lineage (Nāgakulotpannnā), Kuberanaga. His daughterPrabhavatigupta from this Naga queen was married toRudrasena II, theVakataka king ofDeccan.[85] His son Kumaragupta I was married to a Kadamba princess of the Karnataka region. Chandragupta II expanded his realm westwards, defeating the SakaWestern Kshatrapas ofMalwa,Gujarat andSaurashtra in a campaign lasting until 409. His main opponentRudrasimha III was defeated by 395, and he crushed the Bengal chiefdoms. This extended his control from coast to coast, established a second capital atUjjain and was the high point of the empire.[citation needed] Kuntala inscriptions indicate rule of Chandragupta II inKuntala country ofKarnataka.[86]Hunza inscription also indicate that Chandragupta was able to rule north western Indian subcontinent and proceeded to conquerBalkh, although some scholars have also disputed the identity of the Gupta emperor.[87]Chalukya kingVikramaditya VI (r. 1076 – 1126 CE) mentions Chandragupta with his title and states: "Why should the glory of the Kings Vikramaditya and Nanda be a hindrance any longer? He with a loud command abolished that (era), which has the name of Saka, and made that (era) which has the Chalukya counting".[88]
Despite the creation of the empire through war, his reign is remembered for its very influential style ofHindu art,literature,culture andscience. Some excellent works of Hindu art such as the panels at theDashavatara Temple inDeogarh serve to illustrate the magnificence of Gupta art during his reign. Above all, it was the synthesis of elements that gave Gupta art its distinctive flavour. During this period, the Guptas were supportive of thrivingBuddhist andJain cultures as well, and for this reason, there is also a long history of non-HinduGupta period art. In particular, Gupta period Buddhist art was to be influential in most of East and Southeast Asia. Many advances were recorded by the Chinese scholar and travellerFaxian in his diary and published afterwards.
The court of Chandragupta II was made even more illustrious by the fact that it was graced by theNavaratna (Nine Jewels), a group of nine who excelled in the literary arts. Among these men wasKālidāsa, whose works dwarfed the works of many other literary geniuses, not only in his own age but in the years to come. Kalidasa was mainly known for his subtle exploitation of theshringara (romantic) element in his verse.
Campaigns against foreign tribes
Sculpture of Vishnu (red sandstone), 5th century CE.
The 4th centurySanskrit poetKalidasa credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with conquering about twenty-one kingdoms, both in and outside India. After finishing his campaign in East and West India, Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) proceeded northwards, subjugated theParasika, then theHuna andKamboja tribes located in the west and eastOxus valleys respectively. Thereafter, the king proceeded into theHimalaya mountains to reduce the mountain tribes of theKinnaras,Kiratas, as well as India proper.[89][non-primary source needed] In one of his works Kalidasa also credits him with the removal of theSakas from the country. He wrote 'Wasn't it Vikramaditya who drove the Sakas out from the lovely city ofUjjain?'.[90]
Faxian, a ChineseBuddhist monk, was one of the pilgrims who visited India during the reign of the Gupta emperorChandragupta II. He started his journey from China in 399CE and reached India in 405CE. During his stay in India up to 411CE, he went on a pilgrimage toMathura,Kannauj,Kapilavastu,Kushinagar,Vaishali,Pataliputra,Kashi, andRajagriha, and made careful observations about the empire's conditions. Faxian was pleased with the mildness of administration. The penal code was mild, and offences were punished by fines only. From his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period. His writings form one of the most important sources for the history of this period.[94]
"The snow and heat are finely tempered, and there is neither hoarfrost nor snow. The people are numerous and happy. They have not to register their households. Only those who cultivate the royal land have to pay (a portion of) the gain from it. If they want to go, they go. If they want to stay on, they stay on. The king governs without decapitation or (other) corporal punishments. Criminals are simply fined according to circumstances. Even in cases of repeated attempts at wicked rebellion, they only have their right-hand cut off. The king's bodyguards & attendants all have salaries. Throughout the whole country, the people do not kill any living creature, not drink any intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic."[94]
Silver coin of the Gupta EmperorKumaragupta I (Coin of his Western territories, design derived from theWestern Satraps). Obv: Bust of king with crescents, with traces of corrupt Greek script.[95] Rev:Garuda standing facing with spread wings. Brahmi legend:Parama-bhagavatarajadhiraja Sri Kumaragupta Mahendraditya.[96]
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second sonKumaragupta I, born ofMahadevi Dhruvasvamini. Kumaragupta I assumed the title,Mahendraditya.[97] He ruled until 455. Towards the end of his reign a tribe in theNarmada valley, thePushyamitras, rose in power to threaten the empire. TheKidarites as well probably confronted the Gupta Empire towards the end of the rule of Kumaragupta I, as his sonSkandagupta mentions in theBhitari pillar inscription his efforts at reshaping a country in disarray, through reorganisation and military victories over the Pushyamitras and theHunas.[98]
Skandagupta, son and successor of Kumaragupta I is generally considered to be the last of the great Gupta emperors. He assumed the titles ofVikramaditya andKramaditya.[100] He defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with invadingKidarites (sometimes described as theHephthalites or "White Huns", known in India as theSweta Huna), from the northwest.
He repelled aHuna attack around 455 CE, but the expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline. The Bhitari Pillar inscription ofSkandagupta, the successor of Chandragupta, recalls the near annihilation of the Gupta Empire following the attacks of theKidarites.[101] The Kidarites seem to have retained the western part of the Gupta Empire.[101]
Skandagupta died in 467 and was succeeded by his agnate brotherPurugupta.[102]
In the late 490's theAlchon Huns underToramana andMihirakula broke through the Gupta defences in the northwest, and much of the empire in the northwest was overrun by the Huns by 500. According to some scholars the empire disintegrated under the attacks ofToramana and his successorMihirakula.[105][106] It appears from inscriptions that the Guptas, although their power was much diminished, continued to resist the Huns. The Hun invader Toramana was defeated byBhanugupta in 510.[107][108] The Huns were defeated and driven out of India in 528 by KingYashodharman from Malwa, and possibly Gupta emperorNarasimhagupta.[109]
These invasions, although only spanning a few decades, had long term effects on India, and in a sense brought an end toClassical Indian civilisation.[110] Soon after the invasions, the Gupta Empire, already weakened by these invasions and the rise of local rulers such asYashodharman, ended as well.[111] Following the invasions, northern India was left in disarray, with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas.[112] The Huna invasions are said to have seriously damaged India's trade withEurope andCentral Asia.[110] In particular,Indo-Roman trade relations, which the Gupta Empire had greatly benefited from. The Guptas had been exporting numerous luxury products such assilk, leather goods, fur, iron products,ivory,pearl, and pepper from centres such asNasik,Paithan,Pataliputra, andBenares. The Huna invasion probably disrupted these trade relations and the tax revenues that came with them.[citation needed]
Furthermore, Indian urban culture was left in decline, andBuddhism, gravely weakened by the destruction of monasteries and the killing of monks by the hand of the vehemently anti-BuddhistShaivist Huna kingMihirakula, started to collapse.[110] Great centres of learning were destroyed, such as the city ofTaxila, bringing cultural regression.[110] During their rule of 60 years, the Alchons are said to have altered the hierarchy of ruling families and the Indiancaste system. For example, the Hunas are often said to have become the precursors of theRajputs.[110]
Political fragmentation of South Asia after the retreat of theAlchon Huns to the northwest and the end of the Gupta Empire,c. 600 CE[113]
The succession of the 6th-century Guptas is not entirely clear, but the tail end recognised ruler of the dynasty's main line was KingVishnugupta, reigning from 540 to 550. In addition to the Huna invasion, the factors, which contribute to the decline of the empire include competition from theVakatakas and the rise ofYashodharman inMalwa.[114]
The last known inscription by a Gupta emperor is from the reign of Vishnugupta (theDamudarpur copper-plate inscription),[115] in which he makes a land grant in the area ofKotivarsha (Bangarh inWest Bengal) in 542/543 CE.[116] This follows the occupation of most of northern and central India by theAulikara King Yashodharmanc. 532 CE.[116]
Archaeologist Shanker Sharma concluded, based on a 2019 study, that the cause of the Gupta Empire's downfall was a devastating flood which happened around the middle of the 6th century inUttar Pradesh andBihar.[citation needed]
Post-Gupta successor dynasties
In the heart of the former Gupta Empire, in the Gangetic region, the Guptas were succeeded by theMaukhari dynasty and thePushyabhuti dynasty.[117] The coinage of the Maukharis and Pushyabhutis followed the silver coin type of the Guptas, with portrait of the ruler in profile (although facing in the reverse direction compared to the Guptas, a possible symbol of antagonism)[118] and the peacock on the reverse, the Brahmi legend being kept except for the name of the ruler.[117]
The utilisation of horse archers in the Gupta period is evidenced on the coinage ofChandragupta II,Kumaragupta I and Prakasaditya (postulated to bePurugupta)[121] that depicts the kings as horse-archers.[122][123]
There is a paucity of contemporary sources detailing the tactical operations of the Imperial Gupta Army. The best extant information comes from the Sanskrit mahakavya (epic poem)Raghuvaṃśa written by the Classical Sanskrit writer and dramatistKalidasa. Many modern scholars put forward the view that Kalidasa lived from the reign of Chandragupta II to the reign ofSkandagupta[124][125][126][127] and that the campaigns of Raghu – his protagonist in the Raghuvaṃśa – reflect those of Chandragupta II.[128] In Canto IV of the Raghuvamsa, Kalidasa relates how the king's forces clash against the powerful, cavalry-centric, forces of the Persians and later the Yavanas (probably Huns) in the North-West. Here he makes special mention of the use horse-archers in the king's army and that the horses needed much rest after the hotly contested battles.[129] The five arms of the Gupta military included infantry, cavalry,chariotry,elephantry andships.Gunaighar copper plate inscription ofVainya Gupta mentions ships but not chariots.[130]
The Guptas were traditionally aHindu dynasty.[131] They were patronizers ofBrahmanism[c] and allowed followers ofBuddhism andJainism to practice their religions.[136]Sanchi remained an important centre of Buddhism.[136]Kumaragupta I (455CE) is said to have foundedNalanda.[136] Modern genetic studies indicate that it was during the Gupta period that Indian caste groups ceased to intermarry (started practising/enforcingendogamy).[137]
A study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta Empire shows that there was a hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom. It was divided into 26 provinces, which were calledBhukti,Desha orRajya. Provinces were also divided intovishayas orpradeshas (districts) and put under the control ofVishayapatis (districtlords). AVishayapati administered theVishaya with the help of theAdhikarana (council of representatives), which comprised four representatives:Nagarasreshesthi,Sarthavaha,Prathamakulika andPrathama Kayastha. A part of theVishaya was calledVithi.[140] The Gupta also had trading links with theSassanid andByzantine Empires.[citation needed] The four-fold varna system was observed under the Gupta period but caste system was fluid. Brahmins followed non-Brahmanical professions as well. Kshatriyas were involved in trade and commerce. The society largely coexisted among themselves.[141][need quotation to verify]
Urban centres
Gupta administration proved to be highly conducive for the rapid growth of urban centres. The principal and original capital of the Gupta Empire is regarded to bePrayag.[142][4][a] In the fifth century, the capital was moved toAyodhya under eitherKumaragupta orSkandagupta.[5][6][7][a]Chandragupta Vikramaditya took personal interest in the development ofUjjain as a major cultural center after its conquest.[143]Kāśī is sometimes considered by some scholars to have been a capital, either as the original capital,[144] the principal late 6th-century capital[5] or a minor later capital.[6] The Chinese authorFaxian describedMagadha as a prosperous country with rich towns and large populations.
Indian astronomy also saw progress in this era. Thenames of the seven days in a week appeared at the start of the Gupta period based onHindu deities andplanets corresponding to the Roman names.[152]Aryabhata made several contributions such as assigning the start of each day to midnight.[153] the earth's rotation on its axis, westward motion of the stars.[153] Aryabhata also mentioned that reflected sunlight is the cause behind the shining of the Moon.[153] In his book, Aryabhata, he suggested that the Earth was sphere, containing a circumference of 24,835 miles (39,967 km).[154]Varāhamihira approximates the method for determination of the meridian direction from any three positions of the shadow using agnomon.[155]
Medicine
TheSushruta Samhita, which is a Sanskrit redaction text on all of the major concepts ofAyurveda medicine with innovative chapters on surgery, dates to the Gupta period.[156]
Metallurgy and Engineering
TheIron Pillar of Delhi high resistance tocorrosion .[157][158] The corrosion resistance results from an even layer ofcrystallineiron(III) hydrogen phosphatehydrate forming on the high-phosphorus-content iron, which serves to protect it from the effects of the corrosion[157][158] The earliest evidence of thecotton gin was found in the fifth century, in the form ofBuddhist paintings depicting a single-roller gin in theAjanta Caves.[159] The gins consisted of a single roller made of iron or wood and a flat piece of stone or wood.[159]
Education
VariousMahavihara operated throughout the Gupta Empire serving as centuries of education.[160] Nalanda played a vital role in promoting the patronage of arts and academics during the 5th and 6th century CE.[161]
Chess is said to have developed in this period.[168] Its early form in the 6th century,caturaṅga, which translates as "four divisions [of the military]" (infantry,cavalry,chariotry, andelephantry), was represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, rook, and bishop respectively. Doctors also invented several medical instruments, and even performed surgical operations. The ancient Gupta textKama Sutra by the Indian scholarVatsyayana is widely considered to be the standard work onhuman sexual behaviour in Sanskrit literature.
Pataini temple is a Jain temple built during the Gupta period.
The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of NorthIndian art for all the major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious sculptures. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, as well as the Buddha-figure andJaintirthankara figures, the latter often on a very large scale. The two great centres of sculpture wereMathura andGandhara, the latter the centre ofGreco-Buddhist art. Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves atAjanta,Elephanta, andEllora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including Jain) were in fact produced under later dynasties, but primarily reflect the monumentality and balance of Gupta style. Ajanta contains by far the most significant survivals of painting from this and the surrounding periods, showing a mature form which had probably had a long development, mainly in painting palaces.[172] The HinduUdayagiri Caves actually record connections with the dynasty and its ministers,[173] and theDashavatara Temple atDeogarh is a major temple, one of the earliest to survive, with important sculpture.[174]
Nalrajar Garh fortification wall inChilapata Forests,West Bengal, is one of the last surviving fortification remains from the Gupta period, currently 5–7 m high
^According toD. N. Jha, caste distinctions became more entrenched and rigid during this time, as prosperity and the favour of the law accrued the top of the social scale, while the lower orders were degraded further.[20]
Agrawal (2016, p. 1): "The origin has been variously traced to Magadha in Bihar, Murshidabad in West Bengal, and eastern Uttar Pradesh. [....] The last two identifications are based on the account of the travels of the Chinese pilgrim Yijing (I-Tsing), who visited India in the last quarter of the 7th century. He states that a king named Che-li-ki-to (Shri-Gupta) built a temple for the Chinese pilgrims at a place called Mi-li-kia-si-kia-po-no. According to the translation given by S. Beal, it was located 40 stages east of Nalanda when traveling along the Ganges, which would bring one to the Murshidabad district of West Bengal. However, this can easily be ruled out as the Puranas do not include West Bengal in early possessions of the Guptas. In the Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta, Bengal is described as a frontier kingdom. There is no evidence of Gupta rule in Bengal before the beginning of the 5th century. On the basis of the same account of the Chinese traveler, Mi-li-kia-si-kia-po-no has been identified with Mrigashikhavana (Sarnath), [....] This is vouched for by the recent discovery of an inscribed image of the Buddhist goddess Hariti from Sarnath, installed by King Gupta."
Goyal (1967, pp. 44–52): "We ourselves have tackled the problem of the original home of the Guptas from an entirely different angle, and out approach has led us to conclude that they originally belonged to the eastern part of the U. P. [...] This conclusion is consonant with the facts that at least two hoards of the Gupta gold coins and five out of the eight inscriptions of the early Gupta period including the famous prasasti of Samudragupta, have been found crowded at or in the vicinity of Prayaga alone."
Kumar (2024, p. 1): "The original home of the Guptas was the Kāśī–Kannauj region, Uttar Pradesh. Sealings and coins attributed to Śrīgupta have been found mostly in the Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, and Punjāb region."
Khandalavala (1991, p. 1): "The progenitor of this dynasty was one named Gupta whose territory probably existed in the districts of Varanasi and Ghazipur."
Sharma (1989, pp. 39–40): "The cumulative evidence so far available supports the theory that some region in Uttar Pradesh, most probably Eastern Uttar Pradesh, was the original home of the Guptas."
Sharma (2007, p. 242): "UP therefore seems to have been the place from where the Guptas operated and fanned out in different directions. Probably with their centre of power at Prayag."
Zhang (1996, p. 26): "Many authorities on Gupta history believe that they came from Magadha or northern Bengal... historians have now come to accept the lower Doab region as the original home of the Guptas."
Uttar Pradesh or Bihar :
Chaurasia (2002, p. 160): "The original kingdom of the Guptas comprised Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The early Gupta coins and inscriptions have been mainly found in Uttar Pradesh. The centre of their power was Prayag."
Bemmann (2015, p. 659): "The royal dynasty of the Gupta had its origin in the central Ganges plain."
Bengal :
Ganguly (1987, p. 19): "The Guptas, as is evident from the aforesaid discussion, laid the foundation of their kingdom in what was called the Magadha-Varendra region in ancient times."
^Sharma, R.S. (25 January 2007),"Rise and Growth of the Gupta Empire",India’s Ancient Past, Oxford University Press, p. 242,ISBN978-0-19-568785-9,UP therefore seems to have been the place from where the Guptas operated and fanned out in different directions. Probably with their centre of power at Prayag, they spread into the neighbouring regions.
^abChaurasia, Radhey Shyam (2002).History of Ancient India. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 160.ISBN978-81-269-0027-5.The original kingdom of the Guptas comprised Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The early Gupta coins and inscriptions have been mainly found in Uttar Pradesh. It seems that the Guptas found out in different directions from Uttar Pradesh. The centre of their power was Prayag.
^abcRaychaudhuri, Hemchandra (2006).Political History of Ancient India. Cosmo Publications. p. 496.ISBN978-81-307-0291-9.The importance of this identification lies in the fact that it proves that the immediate successors of Skanda Gupta had a capital at Ayodhyā probably till the rise of the Maukharis. If the spurious Gayā plate is to be believed Ayodhyā was the seat of a Gupta jaya-skandhāvāra, or 'camp of victory,' as early as the time of Samudra Gupta. The principal capital of Bālāditya and his successors appears to have been Kāśī.
^abcMookerji, Radhakumud (1989).The Gupta Empire. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 52.ISBN978-81-208-0089-2.the successors of Chandra Gupta II set up their capital at Ayodhyā. It also appears from the Sarnath Stone inscription of Prakațāditya (Fleet, No. 79) that they had another capital at Kāśī.
^abHans T. Bakker (1982). "The rise of Ayodhya as a place of pilgrimage".Indo-Iranian Journal.24 (2): 105.doi:10.1163/000000082790081267.S2CID161957449.During the reign of either the emperor Kumāragupta or, more probably, that of his successor Skandagupta (AD 455–467), the capital of the empire was moved from Pāțaliputra to Ayodhyā...
Sharma, Tej Ram (1978).Personal and geographical names in the Gupta inscriptions. Robarts – University of Toronto. Delhi : Concept. p. 112.An indication of the leaning of the Gupta kings towards Vaisnavism is clear from the Garuda emblem of the Guptas. The Gupta monarchs also used the title 'Paramabhāgavata' i.e.; the devout devotee of Visnu, in their imperial records.
Bakker, Hans T. (12 March 2020).The Alkhan: A Hunnic People in South Asia. Barkhuis. p. 73.ISBN978-94-93194-00-7.On the south banks of the Bina, the building of a religious complex dedicated to Vishnu, the Empire's tutelary deity, had expanded under Budhagupta.
Buddhism [Mahayana] :
Ganeri, Anita (2007).Buddhism. Internet Archive. London : Franklin Watts. p. 17.ISBN978-0-7496-6979-9.Gupta Empire at its height (5th-6th centuries) connected with the development of Mahayana Buddhism with the development of Tantric Buddhism.
Singh, Upinder (2008).A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. p. 521.ISBN978-81-317-1677-9.While the Gupta kings are generally linked with the promotion of Brahmanical cults, some of them extended patronage to Buddhism as well. Paramartha, a Buddhist scholar of the period, states that king Vikramaditya sent his queen and prince Baladitya to study under the tutelage of the famous Buddhist monk and scholar Vasubandhu.[...] Narasimhagupta became a Buddhist monk and gave up his life through dhyana (meditation). Kumaragupta I and Budhagupta may have built monasteries at Nalanda.
^Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Litvinsky, BA (1996).History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Crossroads of Civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750. UNESCO. pp. 151–152.
^Majumdar, R.C. (1981).A Comprehensive History of India: Pt. 1. A.D. 300–985. Indian History Congress/People's Publishing House. p. 64.
^Dani, Ahmad Hasan (1999).History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 221.
^Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D".Social Science History.3 (3/4): 121.doi:10.2307/1170959.JSTOR1170959.
^ab"Gupta Dynasty". 29 October 2009. Archived fromthe original on 29 October 2009. Retrieved30 November 2024.The dynasty controlled an empire stretching across north India at its peak in the 5th century.
^N. Jayapalan,History of India, Vol. I, (Atlantic Publishers, 2001), 130.
^Jha, D.N. (2002).Ancient India in Historical Outline. Delhi: Manohar Publishers and Distributors. pp. 149–73.ISBN978-81-7304-285-0.
^Pletcher 2011, p. 90: "Historians once regarded the Gupta period (c.320–540) as the classical age of India [...] It was also thought to have been an age of material prosperity, particularly among the urban elite [...] Some of these assumptions have been questioned by more-extensive studies of the post-Mauryan, pre-Gupta period. Archaeological evidence from the earlierKushan levels suggests greater material prosperity, to such a degree that some historians argue for an urban decline in the Gupta period."
^Keay, John (2000).India: A history. Atlantic Monthly Press. pp. 151–52.ISBN978-0-87113-800-2.Kalidasa wrote ... with excellence which, by unanimous consent, justifies the inevitable comparisons with Shakespeare ... When and where Kalidasa lived remains a mystery. He acknowledges no links with the Guptas; he may not even have coincided with them ... but the poet's vivid awareness of the terrain of the entire subcontinent argues strongly for a Guptan provenance.
^abKeay, John (2000).India: A history. Atlantic Monthly Press. p. 132.ISBN978-0-87113-800-2.The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature, art and science was now dawning. It was this crescendo of creativity and scholarship, as much as ... political achievements of the Guptas, which would make their age so golden.
^Cf:"In the story contained in Kathasarit-sagara, king Vikarmaditya is said to have destroyed all the barbarous tribes such as the Kambojas, Yavanas, Hunas, Tokharas and the, National Council of Teachers of English Committee on Recreational Reading – Sanskrit language.
^"Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign ofChandragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of theWestern Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc...", p. cli
^Bimal Kanti Majumdar (1949). "Military Pursuits and National Defence Under the Second Magadhan Empire".Proceedings of the Indian History Congress.12:105–109.JSTOR44140516.
^abcA History of Ancient and Early Medieval India by Upinder Singhp. 521
^St-pierre, Paul (2007).In Translation – Reflections, Refractions, Transformations. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 159.
^Wangu, Madhu Bazaz (2003).Images of Indian Goddesses. Abhinav Publications. p. 97.
^O'Brien-Kop, Karen (2021).Rethinking 'Classical Yoga' and Buddhism. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 151.
^Bala, Poonam (2007).Medicine and Medical Policies in India. Lexington Books. p. 37.
^Sharma, R. S. (2005).India's Ancient Past.UP therefore seems to have been the place from where the Guptas operated and fanned out in different directions. Probably with their centre of power at Prayag, they spread into the neighbouring regions.
^Kumar, Sanjeev (18 July 2024).Treasures of the Gupta Empire: A Numismatic History of the Golden Age of India (2nd ed.). Archaeopress Publishing Ltd. p. 196.ISBN978-1-80327-796-7.In the Allahabad Pillar Inscription, line 28, Śrīgupta is referred to as "the prosperous Mahārāja Śrīgupta." As a minor ruler of a small territory primarily centered around Kāśī (present day Vārāņasī), it is possible that he would have issued only coins in silver for local consumption.
^Deva Shastri, Pundit Bapu (1861).Translation of the Surya Siddhanta. pp. 15–16.
^George. Ifrah (1998).A Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. London: John Wiley & Sons.
^Boyer, Carl B. (1991)."The Mathematics of the Hindus".A History of Mathematics (Second ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 207.ISBN0-471-54397-7.He gave more elegant rules for the sum of the squares and cubes of an initial segment of the positive integers. The sixth part of the product of three quantities consisting of the number of terms, the number of terms plus one, and twice the number of terms plus one is the sum of the squares. The square of the sum of the series is the sum of the cubes.
^abIkeyama, Setsuro (2007),"Yativṛṣabha", in Hockey, Thomas; Trimble, Virginia; Williams, Thomas R.; Bracher, Katherine (eds.),The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers, New York, NY: Springer, p. 1251,doi:10.1007/978-0-387-30400-7_1513,ISBN978-0-387-30400-7, retrieved5 May 2021
^Champaneria, Manish C.; Workman, Adrienne D.; Gupta, Subhas C. (July 2014). "Sushruta: Father of Plastic Surgery".Annals of Plastic Surgery.73 (1):2–7.doi:10.1097/SAP.0b013e31827ae9f5.PMID23788147.
^Buddhist Monks And Monasteries Of India: Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture. by Dutt, Sukumar. George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London 1962. pg 352-3
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![A tetrastyle prostyle Gupta period temple at Sanchi besides the Apsidal hall with Maurya foundation, an example of Buddhist architecture and Hindu architecture.[169][failed verification][170][171] 5th century CE.](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSanchi_temple_17.jpg)
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