 A plate ofchickengulai. | |
| Alternative names | Malay curry[1] Indonesian curry[2] |
|---|---|
| Type | Curry orstew |
| Course | Main |
| Place of origin | Maritime Southeast Asia[3][4][5][6][7][8] |
| Region or state | Malay Peninsula,[3][9][10]Sumatra[8] |
| Associatedcuisine | Indonesia,[4]Malaysia,[11][12]Singapore,[13]Brunei,[14] andSouthern Thailand[15] |
| Serving temperature | Hot and room temperature |
| Main ingredients | Groundbumbu spice mixture, includingturmeric,coriander,black pepper,galangal,ginger,chilli pepper,shallot, garlic,fennel,lemongrass,cinnamon,caraway, cooked incoconut milk |
| Variations | Asam pedas,massaman curry |
Gulai (Malay pronunciation:[ˈɡulai̯]) is a type ofspicedstew commonly found in the culinary traditions ofMalaysia,[1]Indonesia[7] and other parts ofMaritime Southeast Asia, includingBrunei,[14]Singapore[13] andsouthern Thailand.[15] Closely associated with bothMalay andMinangkabau cuisines,[16] it is characterised by a rich, aromatic sauce made fromcoconut milk and a blend of ground spices, typically includingturmeric,coriander,chilli and other local aromatics.Gulai is usually prepared withmeat,fish,offal orvegetables and is typically served with rice. InEnglish, it is sometimes described as Malay curry[17][1][18] or Indonesian curry.[2][5][19][20]
The origins ofgulai can be traced toIndian culinary influences introduced throughmaritime trade routes across theIndian Ocean.[21] Over time, these foreign elements were adapted to local tastes with the incorporation of regional ingredients such aslemongrass,galangal,ginger andcandlenut. This fusion gave rise to a distinctive style ofcurry-like stew in Maritime Southeast Asia. Similar culinary developments occurred inneighbouring regions, resulting in dishes such askaeng inThailand[22] andkroeung-based stews inCambodia.[23]Gulai, in particular, became an integral part of the food culture in both coastal and inland areas of theMalay Peninsula,Sumatra andBorneo. InJava, a local variant is commonly referred to asgule.[24]
Regional interpretations ofgulai vary in flavour, texture and ingredients, influenced by local preferences and culinary traditions. In Malaysia, variations range from the fierymasak lemak cili api ofNegeri Sembilan to thedurian-basedgulaitempoyak found inPerak andPahang. In Indonesia,West Sumatran versions tend to be thick and intensely spiced, whileJavanese styles are lighter and more soupy.[24] A related version known asguleh is also present inJavanese-Surinamese cuisine.[25]
The origins ofgulai are closely associated with the historical spread ofIndian culinary influence acrossMaritime Southeast Asia, particularly during the height of thespice trade.South Indian traders introducedcurry-making techniques,spice blends and cooking methods to keyport cities in the region. Archaeological evidence suggests that curry-like preparations had already reached parts ofSoutheast Asia by this time, as indicated by the discovery of ancientstone tools atÓc Eo, an important port city of theFunan kingdom insouthern Vietnam. The tools, including a largesandstonegrinding slab, bore microscopic traces of eight different spices such as turmeric, ginger, clove, cinnamon and nutmeg.[21]
These culinary elements were gradually incorporated into local food traditions across bothmainland andisland Southeast Asia. In theIndianised state of Funan, Indian influence played a key role in shaping earlyCambodian culture through the introduction of religion, writing systems and artistic forms. According to archaeologist Dr. Ea Darith, these cultural elements were adopted selectively rather than imposed. Indian spices and cooking methods contributed to the development ofkroeung, a characteristicKhmer spice paste composed of galangal, turmeric, lemongrass and other local aromatics. When combined withprahok (fermentedfish paste),kroeung forms the flavour base for manyCambodian dishes, such assomlar m’chu kroeung sach ko (akroeung-based sour beef soup).[23]
In neighbouringSiam (modern-dayThailand), Indian traders andBuddhist missionaries introduced key aromatics such as tamarind, cumin and lemongrass. These ingredients formed the basis ofnam prik, a type of thick spice paste that included components like lemongrass, fish sauce and peppercorns.Nam prik became a foundational element in numerousThai dishes, including early forms of Thai curry known asgaeng. Later contributions from foreign traders, such as the introduction of shrimp paste and chilli peppers, further developed the complexity and spiciness that characterise Thai curries today.[22]
A similar process of adaptation occurred acrossIndonesia and theMalay Archipelago, where Indian spice traditions were localised through the use of regional ingredients such as coconut milk, lemongrass, galangal, turmeric, candlenut and chilli. This culinary synthesis gave rise togulai, a rich, spiced stew that developed into numerous regional variations throughout the region.[26][27]
One notable centre of this culinary adaptation was theMalay Peninsula and easternSumatra.[10][29][26] Located on both sides of theStraits of Malacca, a key maritime corridor in thespice trade andcross-cultural exchange, these regions were historically linked throughcommerce,migration and shared linguistic and cultural ties.[9][30] This longstanding interconnectedness fostered their emergence as important hubs for the transmission, adaptation and localisation of curry-based culinary traditions.[31][32][33]
The establishment of theSultanate of Malacca in the early 15th century marked a significant turning point in the region'sculinary landscape.[34][35] As Malacca grew into a keyentrepôt in theIndian Ocean trade network, it attracted merchants from across Asia, includingSouth Asia, theMiddle East andChina. This convergence of cultures facilitated the further dissemination of spices, cooking techniques and food traditions.[9][30] Indian culinary practices, in particular, were gradually adapted to suit local palates and ingredients, resulting in a distinctly Malay style ofgulai. This regional variant was typically characterised by the use of coconut milk, chilli and indigenous herbs such as lemongrass, galangal and turmeric.[36][37] Over time,gulai became a foundational component of theMalay gastronomic repertoire, commonly served during communal feasts, religious celebrations and courtly banquets.
By the 16th century, the dish was already well-established in the Malay culinary tradition, particularly within the courts of Malacca. Early references to gulai are found in classical Malay literature, includingHikayat Amir Hamzah, which mentions the dish in the context of elite dining.[38] Further references appear inMalay epics such as theHikayat Hang Tuah[39] and theHikayat Merong Mahawangsa indicate its prominence in regional courtly and cultural settings.[28]
Additional testimony comes fromStamford Raffles, who in his 1817 account of early 19th-centuryJava described a type ofsoupy dish known asGulai Melayu. According to Raffles, the dish was named after its place of origin,Melayu (Malay), reflecting its association with the Malay region and culinary identity.[3]
A similar expression developed amongMinangkabau culinary traditions ofWest Sumatra, where the introduction of gulai is closely tied to the maritime trade networks that connectedSouth andSoutheast Asia. As part of themaritime Silk Road, South Indian traders, particularly those from theTamil region, frequented ports along the westSumatran coast, facilitating the exchange of not only goods and beliefs but alsoculinary practices. Among these were spice combinations and preparation methods associated with Indian curries, including the use of turmeric, coriander and cumin.[40]
The Minangkabau, known for their richly spiced and aromatic cooking, gradually adapted these foreign elements to suit local tastes and ingredients. Over time, they developed a regional version of curry-based stew that became known asgulai, marked by the use of coconut milk, chilli and regional herbs such as lemongrass and galangal.Gulai eventually became a defining feature ofMinangkabau cuisine, appearing in a wide variety of dishes made with meat, fish, offal and vegetables, and often prepared for ceremonial, communal and festive occasions.[40]
By the 16th century, dishes resemblinggulai were already being prepared in various parts of Sumatra, Java, and the Malay Peninsula.European travellers of the period, includingAntonio Pigafetta, documented the prevalence of richly spiced foods in maritime Southeast Asia, reflecting the long-standing integration of curry-like preparations into local diets.[41] In 1811, the British orientalistWilliam Marsden recorded a dish calledgulei in the book of The History of Sumatra in theMalay language, describing it as being prepared in a manner similar to what Europeans had come to know as “curry”.[42]In 1882,Pieter Johannes Veth mention dishgoelai-goelai in his bookMidden Sumatra Expeditie, Reizen en Onderzoekingen der Sumatra-Expeditie, 1877-1879.[43]
During the colonial era, curry-based dishes such as gulai became increasingly integrated into the daily culinary practices of local communities. The 19th-centuryDutch East Indies cookbookKoki Bitja listedkari (curry) as one of the most commonly prepared recipes, reflecting the enduring popularity of spice-laden stews across the region. This period also witnessed the formalisation and codification of regional variations of gulai, further entrenching its role as a staple of local cuisines.[44]
Gulai is typically prepared with ablend of spices andcoconut milk, resulting in a thick, aromatic sauce. While yellow is the most common colour due to turmeric, other versions may appear red, green, black, or white depending on the spice combination. Although coconut milk is characteristic of many styles, some regional preparations omit it, relying instead on the richness of the spice mixture.[45][46]
The dish's flavour profile is built from a mixture ofground spices and herbs, commonly including coriander, black pepper, galangal, ginger, chilli peppers, shallots, garlic, fennel, lemongrass, cinnamon and caraway. These ingredients are ground into a paste and cooked with meat, fish, offal or vegetables, then slowly simmered to develop and integrate the flavours.[7][47][48]
Gulai is widely consumed throughoutIndonesia and theMalay Archipelago, particularly in Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Java and Borneo. While its foundational preparation involves coconut milk and a blend of spices, regional variations exhibit distinct differences in ingredients, flavour profiles and presentation. InJava,gulai typically has a lighter yellow colour, whereas inSumatra it often appears deeper and more reddish due to the greater use of chilli and spices. The consistency of the dish also varies: inMinangkabau,Acehnese andMalay cuisines, the sauce is generally thick and rich, while in Java it is typically thinner and soup-like, often served with mutton, beef or offal.[7][6] Across the region, gulai is commonly eaten with steamed rice.
"Biar rumah condong, asalkan makan gulai lemak dan gulai asam pedas"
(Let the house lean and sway, so long as there's rich gulai lemak and tangy gulai asam pedas on the table.)
AmongMalay communities,gulai holds significant cultural importance and is regularly featured in both everyday meals and ceremonial occasions. Its role in the culinary tradition is reflected in aMalay proverb,"Biar rumah condong, asalkan makan gulai lemak dan gulaiasam pedas",[49] reflects the high regard for such dishes, using food as a metaphor for contentment and the idea that simple pleasures can outweigh material hardship. In various regional preparations,kerisik (toasted grated coconut paste) is commonly added to enhance the flavour and thicken the sauce.
Notable local variants in Peninsular Malaysia highlight the diversity of gulai across different states. InPerak andPahang,gulaitempoyak, made withfermented durian, is commonly served, especially during festive occasions such asHari Raya and weddings.Negeri Sembilan, known for itsfiery cuisine, is associated withmasak lemak cili api, a type ofgulai prepared with coconut milk, turmeric andbird's eye chilli. Other distinctive Negeri Sembilan dishes includegulai belalang padi (grasshoppergulai)[50] andgulai pisang muda (youngbananagulai).[51]
InKedah,gulai rias pisang (banana stemgulai)[52] is a regional speciality, while inKelantan,gulai darat, typically made with beef or goat, is commonly eaten with sambal belacan. In some areas,asam pedas, a sour and spicy fish dish, is also referred to asgulai tumis, illustrating the fluid terminology in local culinary practice. Additionally,gulai is sometimes served withroti canai, offering an alternative to the more commonly served curry accompaniment.[53]
A related adaptation ofgulai exists insouthern Thailand, particularly in theMalay-majority provinces ofPattani,Yala andNarathiwat. Among local Malay-speaking communities, the termgula lakhing is used to refer tokaeng massaman (massaman curry). The term is derived from theMalay phrasegulai daging ("beefgulai") and reflects the historical and linguistic connections between Malay and Thai culinary traditions. This dish is commonly served inkhao gaeng (rice and curry) establishments and remains a regular part of everyday meals in the region.[54]
In someOrang Asli communities of the Malay Peninsula, such as theMah Meri andSemelai,gulai forms part of indigenous culinary traditions, prepared with wild-sourced ingredients from the surrounding environment. One example isgulai tupai dengan ubi, a preparation ofsquirrel stewed withcassava.[55][56]
Beyond the Malay Peninsula, related culinary traditions exist inSingapore. Among theOrang Laut community,gulai nenas refers to a sour fish soup prepared withpineapple, tamarind andbelacan (fermented shrimp paste), often using local fish such asparrotfish,tuskfish (ikan tokak) or snapper (ikan mentimun). The dish reflects the community's maritime heritage and adaptation ofgulai to local coastal ingredients.[57]
A similarly localised interpretation appears inPeranakan cuisine, wheregulai kiam hu kut (salted fish bone gulai) is a notable example found in both Singapore and Malaysia. It features fried salted fish bones simmered in a thick, coconut-based gulai enriched with a spice paste.[58] Known for its pronouncedumami flavour and a subtle sourness fromtamarind orasam keping, the dish illustrates the synthesis of Malay andChinese culinary elements characteristic of Peranakan foodways.
Across theIndonesian archipelago, particularly inSumatra,gulai has evolved into various regional forms shaped by local ingredients, culinary traditions, and cooking methods. InWest Sumatra,gulai is a central element of Minangkabau cuisine. The thick, yellowish sauce is commonly used to flavour meat, fish and vegetables, and is noted for its rich, spicy and aromatic qualities. It integrates a complex blend of spices into a harmonious flavour profile, often making the identification of individual ingredients difficult. Within Minangkabau communities,ruku-ruku (holy basil,Ocimum tenuiflorum) is considered an essential herb in the preparation ofgulai.[24]
The importance ofgulai inMinangkabau food culture is reflected in the status it holds within domestic cooking. InPadang, the ability to preparegulai is often regarded as a measure of culinary proficiency. Dishes such asrendang (beef braised in coconut milk and spices),asam padeh (a sour and spicy stew) andkalio (a lighter and more fluid form ofrendang) are sometimes considered stylistic extensions of Padang-style gulai. These preparations are widely featured inPadang restaurants, which serve Minangkabau cuisine across Indonesia and in neighbouring countries such as Malaysia and Singapore. Their presence has contributed to the dissemination of Minangkabau-stylegulai beyond its regional origin.[48][59]
Gulai in other Sumatran regions also displays considerable diversity. InAceh,gulai kambing is known for its bold, aromatic spice blend, reflectingSouth Asian andMiddle Eastern influences.[60] InNorth Sumatra,cassava leaves are commonly stewed in a coconut-based gravy, offering a widely enjoyed plant-based variant.[61]
InRiau,gulai belacan features prawns cooked in coconut milk withfermented shrimp paste, tamarind and black pepper, producing a savoury and tangy flavour.[62] FromJambi,gulai tepek ikan combinessago flour and minced fish, typicallysnakehead ormackerel, shaped intoflattened pieces and stewed in spiced broth.[63]
More distinctive examples includegulai pisang fromBengkulu, which usesripe bananas as the main ingredient,[64] andlempah darat fromBangka Belitung,[65] a vegetable-basedgulai incorporatingbamboo shoots, taro, young pineapple and other local produce. InSouth Sumatra,gulai jeghuk orpindang tempoyak blends freshwater fish with fermented durian (tempoyak), yielding a pungent, tangy dish.[66] FromLampung,gulai taboh iwa tapa featuressmoked fish simmered in coconut milk with galangal, turmeric and other aromatics, often accompanied by melinjo leaves or long beans.[67] In the nearbyRiau Islands,Gulai Kuah Tige fromNatuna combinessago pearls, boiled cassava and grated coconut, which are served together with fish gulai poured over the top.[68]
In contrast to these regional variations,gultik (short forgulai tikungan, meaning "street cornergulai") is an urban adaptation ofgulai that originated inBlok M, South Jakarta. Created by migrants fromSukoharjo,Central Java,gultik features thinly sliced beef cooked in a richgulai sauce, typically served with rice and skewered side dishes such as offalsatay orkrupuk.[69]
InSemarang,gule bustaman has a unique taste goatgule because it does not use coconut milk, and the spices of the soup is combined ofserundeng, cardamom, cumin, galangal, cinnamon, andcurry tree leaves.[70][71] InEast Java,gule kambing is served withsate kambing (goatsatay).[72][73]
Outside thearchipelagic region ofSoutheast Asia,gulai has also continued within theJavanese diaspora, including those inSuriname, where it is known asguleh among the local community. Brought by Javanese contract labourers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,[74] the dish preserves elements of its original preparation. In Suriname,guleh is commonly made withbabat (beef tripe) andlebmaag (abomasum), simmered in a spiced coconut milk broth. It is typically served withlontong (compressedrice cakes) and is considered a festive dish, particularly duringBodo, theJavanese-Surinamese observance ofEid al-Fitr.[75][76]
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