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TheGreen Revolution in India was a period that began in the 1960s during whichagriculture in India was converted into a modern industrial system by the adoption of technology, such as the use ofhigh-yielding varieties of crops, andfertilisers. Mainly led by agricultural scientistM. S. Swaminathan in India, this period was part of the largerGreen Revolution endeavour initiated byNorman Borlaug, which leveragedagricultural research and technology to increase agricultural productivity in the developing world.[2] Varieties or strains ofcrops can be selected by breeding for various useful characteristics such asdisease resistance, response to fertilisers, product quality and high yields.
Under the premiership ofIndira Gandhi[3][4], the Green Revolution within India commenced in 1968, leading to an increase in food grain production, especially inPunjab,Haryana, andWestern Uttar Pradesh. Major milestones in this undertaking were the development of high-yielding varieties ofwheat,[5] andrust-resistant strains of wheat.[6][7]
Farmers, young and old, educated and uneducated, have easily taken to the new agronomy. It has been heart-warming to see young college graduates, retired officials, ex-army men, illiterate peasants and small farmers queuing up to get the new seeds.
A number of people have been recognised for their efforts during India's Green Revolution.
The Green Revolution in India was first introduced inPunjab in late 1966-67 as part of a development program issued by international donor agencies and the Government of India.[13]
During theBritish Raj, India's grain economy hinged on a unilateral relation of exploitation.[14] Consequently, when India gained independence, the weakened country quickly became vulnerable to frequent famines, financial instabilities, and low productivity. These factors formed a rationale for the implementation of the Green Revolution as a development strategy in India.
The main development was higher-yielding varieties ofwheat,[5] for developingrust-resistant strains of wheat.[6] The introduction of high-yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds[17] and the improved quality offertilisers andirrigation techniques led to the increase in the production to make the country self-sufficient in food grains, thus improvingagriculture in India. Also, other varieties such as Kalyan Sona and Sonalika were introduced by cross-breeding of wheat with other crops.[18]
Since growing rice has high water requirements, the production of rice was mainly enhanced by improved irrigation infrastructure such as canal systems and groundwater irrigation.[19] The creation of HYVs, such as the Jaya variety in southern India, was also important to rice production.[20]
The enhanced production of wheat and rice has been credited with improving India's self-sufficiency and with making India a major food exporter.[21] Along with technological advancements, the enthusiasm of farmers mobilised the idea of an agricultural revolution.[citation needed] Due to the rise in the use of chemical pesticides and fertilisers, as well as increased use of groundwater, there was an increase insoil toxicity.[19]
The other practices include use of pesticides,insecticides and herbicides, consolidation of holdings, land reforms, improved rural infrastructure, supply of agricultural credit, use of chemical or synthetic fertilisers, and use of advanced machinery.[citation needed]
The Green Revolution yielded great economic prosperity during its early years. In Punjab, where it was first introduced, the Green Revolution led to significant increases in the state's agricultural output, supporting India's overall economy. By 1970, Punjab was producing 70% of the country's total food grains,[22] and farmers' incomes were increasing by over 70%.[22] Punjab's prosperity following the Green Revolution became a model to which other states aspired to reach.[23] However, despite the initial prosperity experienced in Punjab, the Green Revolution was met with much controversy throughout India.
Criticism of the effects of the green revolution includes the cost for many small farmers using HYV seeds, with their associated demands of increased irrigation systems and pesticides. For instance, farmers buyingMonsanto BT cotton seeds were told these seeds produced 'non-natural insecticides'. In reality, they still had to pay for expensive pesticides and irrigation systems, which led to increased borrowing to finance the change from traditional seed varieties. Many farmers had difficulty paying for the expensive technologies, especially if they had a bad harvest. These high costs of cultivation pushed rural farmers to take out loans—typically at high interest rates.[13] Over-borrowing entrapped the farmers into a cycle of debt.[13]
India's liberalised economy further exacerbated the farmers' economic conditions. Indian environmentalistVandana Shiva writes that this is the "second Green Revolution". The first Green Revolution, she suggests, was mostly publicly funded (by the Indian Government). This new Green Revolution, she says, is driven by private (and foreign) interest—notably MNCs like Monsanto—as encouraged byNeoliberalism. Ultimately, this is leading to foreign ownership over most of India's farmland, undermining farmers' interests.[13]
Excessive and inappropriate use of fertilisers and pesticides polluted waterways and killed beneficial insects and wildlife. It has causedover-use of soil and rapidly depleted its nutrients. The rampant irrigation practices led to eventualsoil degradation. Groundwater practices have fallen dramatically. Further, heavy dependence on few major crops has led to theloss of biodiversity of farmers and the increase ofstubble burning cases since 1980. These problems were aggravated due to the absence of training to use modern technology and vast illiteracy leading to excessive use of chemicals.[24]
The green revolution spread only in irrigated and high-potential rain-fed areas. The villages or regions without access to sufficient water were left out that widened the regional disparities between adopters and non-adopters. This is because the HYV seeds technically can be applied only on land with assured water supply and availability of other inputs like chemicals and fertilisers. The application of the new technology in dry-land areas is infeasible.
States like Punjab, Haryana,Uttar Pradesh, etc. having good irrigation and other infrastructure facilities were able to derive the benefits of the green revolution and achieve faster economic development while other states have recorded slow growth in agriculture production.[25]
In the years since the Green Revolution was adopted, issues of sustainability have come up due to the adverse environmental and social consequences. To meet this challenge other alternatives to farming have emerged like small subsistence farms, family homesteads,New Age communes, village and community farming collectives and women's cooperatives with the common purpose of producing organically grown, chemical-free food. In green revolution areas of the country, increasing numbers of families are experimenting on their own with alternative systems of land management and the growing of crops. Building upon the idea ofsustainable development, commercial models for large-scale food production have been developed by integrating traditional farming systems with appropriate energy efficient technology.[26]
Chidambaram Subramaniam, the political architect of thegreen revolution in India...
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