| Gandhara art | |
|---|---|
.jpeg)   Top:Standing Buddha from Gandhara, 1st-2nd century AD Centre: TheBimaran casket, representing the Buddha, is dated to around 30–10 BC.British Museum; Bottom: TheBodhisattvaMaitreya, 2nd century AD,Gandhara | |
| Years active | 1st century B.C. -5th century A.D. |
| Location | Central Asia South Asia |
TheGreco-Buddhist art orGandhara art is the artistic manifestation ofGreco-Buddhism, a culturalsyncretism betweenAncient Greek art andBuddhism. It had mainly evolved in the ancient region ofGandhara, located in the northwestern fringe of theIndian subcontinent.
The series of interactions leading to Gandhara art occurred over time, beginning withAlexander the Great's brief incursion into the area, followed by theMauryan EmperorAshoka converting the region to Buddhism.[citation needed] Buddhism became the prominent religion in theIndo-Greek Kingdoms. However, Greco-Buddhist art truly flowered and spread under theKushan Empire, when the first surviving devotional images of the Buddha were created during the 1st-3rd centuries AD.[1] Gandhara art reached its zenith from the 3rd-5th century AD, when most surviving motifs and artworks were produced.[1]
Gandhara art is characterized by Buddhist subject matter, sometimes adapting Greco-Roman elements, rendered in a style and forms that are heavily influenced by Greco-Roman art. It has the strong idealistic realism and sensuous description ofHellenistic art, and it is believed to have produced the first representations ofGautama Buddha in human form, ending the early period ofaniconism in Buddhism.[2]
The representation of the human form in large sculpture had a considerable influence, both to the south in the rest of India, and to the east, where thespread of Buddhism carried its influence as far as Japan.[3]
There has been disagreement among art historians as to whether Gandharan art owes more to the culture established immediately after Alexander's campaigns, or to a synthesis several centuries later between travelling Greco-Roman artists from the easternRoman Empire in regions where Greek settlers were still important. Most of the considerable quantity of Gandharan art that can be dated comes from after about 50 AD, although some clearly was created earlier.[9] For this reason, some scholars prefer to call thisRomano-Indian art,[10] or talk of an "Indo-Classical style".[11]
The French scholarAlfred C. A. Foucher first identified the Western influences on Gandharan art at the end of the 19th century. He was initially a proponent of the continuity between the first Greek settlements and this art, and dated much of the art much earlier than more recent scholars do. However, he later revised his views and datings somewhat. His views as to dates and the crucial period of Western influence came to be widely rejected, but then received considerable support by the discovery of the important deserted city site ofAi-Khanoum (Alexandria on the Oxus), which was excavated in the 1960s and 1970s, where quantities of clearly Greek-influenced art were found, datable to the 3rd and (mostly) 2nd centuries BC.[12]
Greco-Buddhist art originated after a series of cultural exchanges between populations. During the time ofAlexander the Great'smilitary campaign in the Indian subcontinent andSouth Asia, Buddhism was mostly limited to North Eastern India and not common in North Western India, where theGreek satrapies formed. Buddhism became widespread throughout South and Central Asia under theMaurya Empire. The Mauryan EmperorAshoka converted his Greek subjects among others to Buddhism as mentioned in hisEdicts of Ashoka.[13]
Here in the king's domain among the Yavanas (Greeks), the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma.
— Ashoka, Rock Edict 13
After the overthrow of the Maurya Empire by theShunga Empire, which did not extend to the north-western corners of the Mauryan territories, many of the Greek satrapies continued to practice Buddhism and developed the Greco-Buddhist art. This was evident during the reign of the HellenisticGreco-Bactrian kingdom (250–130 BC) and theIndo-Greek kingdom (180–10 BC).[14] Under theIndo-Greeks and especially later under theKushan Empire, Greco-Buddhist art flourished in the area ofGandhara and even spread toCentral Asia, affecting the art of theTarim Basin, as well as permeating again into India.[15]
The Yavana (Greek) kingMenander I was given the title ofSoter ("Savior"), presumably for his aid ofBuddhists that were being persecuted. According to theMilinda Panha, Menander was a devout Buddhist and achieved the title of anarhat, and was buried in astupa according to the Buddhist fashion. Following the death of Menander, the Indo-Greek Kingdoms disintegrated and their realm was conquered by invadingIndo-Scythians or other regional entities. The Indo-Scythians were in turn subjugated by theKushan Empire as theWestern Satraps and the Kushan Empire would consolidate power throughout most of Central Asia and North India. The Kushan EmperorKanishka, was also a devout Buddhist and Buddhism and its art flourished during the Kushan Era. Furthermore, he was responsible forspreading Mahayana Buddhism andBuddhist art throughout theSilk Road.
Buddhist art first became evident and widespread under the Maurya Empire during the reign ofAshoka the Great.[16]Mauryan art heavily influenced early Buddhist art and its iconography. This is evident in the art found throughout the Maurya Empire such ascapitals including thePillars of Ashoka, andstupas such as theSanchi andBharhut stupas, which were constructed and first decorated during the Maurya Era.
Early Buddhist art, including Mauryan art, depicted various structures and symbols pertaining to dharmic religions which are still used today. Symbols such as theDharmachakra,lotus, and theBodhi tree have become common iconography representing Buddhism.
Additionally, these Buddhist artforms included various mythological beings such asyakshas includingKubera andyakshini such as Chanda, as well as celestialDevas (Suras) andAsuras. Furthermore, Mauryan art especially those found on reliefs throughout stupas, depict thelife of the Buddha including his birth, royal processions, theGreat Departure,enlightenment, anddeath and entry to Nirvana.
Interestingly, although these sculptures depict other humans and various divinities in anthropomorphic forms, the Buddha is purposefully not shown in a human representation. Instead, the Buddha is depicted with various symbols.[17] This includes a riderless horse depicting his departure from his kingdom as shown on the Bharhut stupa, Bodhi tree to depict theShakyamuni Buddha achieving enlightenment, and theBuddha footprints to convey his legacy after moving on from this world.
There is much debate on why the Buddha was not depicted as a human unlike other sculptures found throughout Buddhist art. It is considered that the orthodox Buddhists choose not to represent the Shakyamuni Buddha out of respect, as giving him a human form would bound him to this Earth as a living being which contradicts him obtaining his goal of enlightenment and achievingmoksha.[17]
The clearest examples of Hellenistic art are found in the coins of theGreco-Bactrian kings of the period, such asDemetrius I of Bactria. Many coins of the Greco-Bactrian kings have been unearthed, including the largest silver and gold coins ever minted in the Hellenistic world, ranking among the best in artistic and technical sophistication: they "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often more bland descriptions of their royal contemporaries further West". ("Greece and the Hellenistic world").
These Hellenistic kingdoms established cities on the Greek model, such as inAi-Khanoum inBactria, displaying purely Hellenistic architectural features, Hellenistic statuary, and remains ofAristotelician papyrus prints and coin hoards.
These Greek elements penetrated India quite early as shown by the HellenisticPataliputra capital[18] (3rd century BC) during the Maurya Era, but the influence became especially strong, particularly in northwestern India following the invasion of theGreco-Bactrians in 180 BC, with the establishment of theIndo-Greek kingdom in India. Architectural styles used Hellenistic decorative motifs such as fruit garland and scrolls. Stone palettes for aromatic oils representing purely Hellenistic themes such as aNereid riding aKetos sea monster are found.
The Greeks in Asia are well known archaeologically for theirstone palettes, also called "toilet trays", round trays commonly found in the areas ofBactria andGandhara, which usually representGreek mythological scenes. The earliest of them are attributed to theIndo-Greek period in the 2nd and 1st centuryBC (a few were retrieved from the Indo-Greek stratum No.5 atSirkap).[19][20] Production continued until the time of theIndo-Parthians, but they practically disappeared after the 1st century.
| Early stone palettes | |
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As soon as the Greeks invaded Northwestern South Asia to form theIndo-Greek kingdom, a fusion of Hellenistic and Buddhist elements started to appear, encouraged by the benevolence of the Greek kings towards Buddhism. This artistic trend then developed for several centuries and seemed to flourish further during theKushan Empire from the 1st century AD.
According to some authors, Hellenistic sculptors had some connection with the creation of Buddhist art atSanchi andBharhut.[21] The structure as a whole as well as various elements point to Hellenistic and other foreign influence, such as the fluted bell, addorsed capital of thePersepolitan order, and the abundant use of the Hellenisticflame palmette orhoneysuckle motif.[22]
Around 115 BC, the embassy ofHeliodorus from kingAntialkidas to the court of theSungas kingBhagabhadra inVidisha is recorded. In the Sunga capital, Heliodorus constructed theHeliodorus pillar in a dedication toVāsudeva. This would indicate that relations between the Indo-Greeks and the Sungas had improved by that time, that people traveled between the two realms, and also that the Indo-Greeks readily followed Indian religions.[23]
Also around the same time, circa 115 BC, it is known that architectural decorations such as decorative reliefs started to be introduced at nearbySanchi, 6 km away from Vidisha, by craftsmen from the area ofGandhara, a central Indo-Greek region.[24][25] Typically, the earliest medallions atSanchi Stupa No.2 are dated to 115 BC, while the more extensive pillar carvings are dated to 80 BC.[26] These early decorative reliefs were apparently the work of craftsmen from the northwest (around the area ofGandhara), since they left mason's marks inKharoshthi, as opposed to the localBrahmi script.[24][25] This seems to imply that these foreign workers were responsible for some of the earliest motifs and figures that can be found on the railings of the stupa.[24][25]
| Early reliefs atSanchi,Stupa No 2 (circa 115 BC) | |
Sanchi, Stupa No2 Mason's marks inKharoshti point to craftsmen from the north-west (region ofGandhara) for the earliest reliefs at Sanchi, circa 115 BC.[24][26][27] |
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Craftsmen from theGandhara area, a central region of theIndo-Greek realm, are known to have been involved in the construction of the gateways atBharhut, which are dated to 100-75 BC:[31][32] this is becausemason's marks inKharosthi have been found on several elements of the Bharhut remains, indicating that some of the builders at least came from the north, particularly fromGandhara where the Kharoshti script was in use.[29][22][33]
Cunningham explained thatthe Kharosthi letters were found on the ballusters between the architraves of the gateway, but none on the railings which all had Indian markings, summarizing that the gateways, which are artistically more refined, must have been made by artists from the North, whereas the railings were made by local artists.[30] The Bharhut gateway is dated to 100-75 BC (most probably 75 BC based on artistic analysis).[31]
The structure as a whole as well as various elements point to Hellenistic and other foreign influence, such as the fluted bell, addorsed capital of thePersepolitan order, and the abundant use of the Hellenisticflame palmette orhoneysuckle motif.[22]
Later, Greco-Buddhist art depicts thelife of the Buddha in art. TheBodhisattvas are depicted as bare-chested and jewelled Indian princes, and theBuddhas as Greek kings wearing the lighttoga-like himation. The buildings in which they are depicted incorporate Greek style, with the ubiquitousIndo-Corinthian capitals and Greek decorative scrolls. Surrounding deities form a pantheon of Greek (Atlas,Herakles) and Indian gods (Indra).
Stucco as well as stone was widely used by sculptors in Gandhara for the decoration of monastic and cult buildings. Stucco provided the artist with a medium of great plasticity, enabling a high degree of expressiveness to be given to the sculpture. Sculpting in stucco was popular wherever Buddhism spread from Gandhara - India, Afghanistan, Central Asia and China.
Stylistically, Greco-Buddhist art started by being extremely fine and realistic, as apparent on the standing Buddhas, with "a realistic treatment of the folds and on some even a hint of modelled volume that characterizes the best Greek work" (Boardman). It then lost this sophisticated realism, becoming progressively more symbolic and decorative over the centuries.
The presence ofstupas at the Greek city ofSirkap, which was built byDemetrius around 180 BC, already indicates a strong syncretism between Hellenism and theBuddhist faith, together with other religions such asHinduism andZoroastrianism. The style is Greek, adorned withCorinthian columns in excellent Hellenistic execution.
Later inHadda, the Greek divinityAtlas is represented holding Buddhist monuments with decorated Greek columns. The motif was adopted extensively throughout the Indian sub-continent, Atlas being substituted for the IndianYaksa in the monuments of theShunga Empire around the 2nd century BC.
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Sometime between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD, the first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha were developed. These were absent from earlier strata of Buddhist art, which preferred to represent the Buddha with symbols such as the stupa, the Bodhi tree, the empty seat, the wheel, or the footprints. But the innovative anthropomorphic Buddha image immediately reached a very high level of sculptural sophistication, naturally inspired by the sculptural styles of Hellenistic Greece.
Many of the stylistic elements in the representations of the Buddha point to Greek influence: the Greekhimation (a lighttoga-like wavy robe covering both shoulders: Buddhist characters are always represented with adhotiloincloth before this innovation), thehalo, thecontrapposto stance of the upright figures, the stylizedMediterranean curly hair and top-knot apparently derived from the style of theBelvedere Apollo (330 BC), and the measured quality of the faces, all rendered with strong artisticrealism (See:Greek art). Some of the standing Buddhas (as the one pictured) were sculpted using the specific Greek technique of making the hands and sometimes the feet in marble to increase the realistic effect, and the rest of the body in another material.
Foucher especially considered Hellenistic free-standing Buddhas as "the most beautiful, and probably the most ancient of the Buddhas", assigning them to the 1st century BC, and making them the starting point of the anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha ("The Buddhist art of Gandhara", Marshall, p101).
There is some debate regarding the exact date for the development of the anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha, and this has a bearing on whether the innovation came directly from theIndo-Greeks, or was a later development by theIndo-Scythians, theIndo-Parthians or theKushans under Hellenistic artistic influence. Most of the early images of the Buddha (especially those of the standing Buddha) are anepigraphic, which makes it difficult date definitely. The earliest known image of the Buddha with approximate dating is theBimaran casket, which was found buried with coins of the Indo-Scythian kingAzes II (or possiblyAzes I), indicating a 30–10 BC date, although this date is not undisputed.
Such dating, as well as the general Hellenistic style and pose of the Buddha on the Bimaran casket (himation dress,contrapposto pose, general depiction) makes it a possible Indo-Greek work, used in dedications by Indo-Scythians soon after the end of Indo-Greek rule inGandhara. Since it already displays quite a sophisticated iconography (Brahma andŚakra as attendants,Bodhisattvas) in an advanced style, it would suggest much earlier representations of the Buddha were already current by that time, going back to the rule of the Indo-Greeks (Alfred A. Foucher and others). The next datable findings come later, such as theKanishka casket (c. AD 120) andKanishka's Buddhist coins. These works indicate that the anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha was already extant in the 1st century AD.
Chinese texts and mural paintings in theTarim Basin city ofDunhuang describe ambassadorZhang Qian traveling toCentral Asia, as far asBactria around 130 BC. The same murals describeEmperor Wu (156–87 BC) worshipping Buddhist statues, explaining them as"golden men brought in 120 BC by a great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads." Although there is no other mention of Emperor Wu worshipping the Buddha in Chinese historical literature, the murals suggest that statues of the Buddha were already in existence during the 2nd century BC, connecting them directly to the time of the Indo-Greeks.
TheBook of Later Han describes the enquiry about Buddhism made around AD 67 by the emperorEmperor Ming (AD 58–75). He sent an envoy to theYuezhi in northwestern India, who brought back paintings and statues of the Buddha, confirming their existence before that date:
In Gandharan art, the Buddha is often shown under the protection of the Greek godHerakles, standing with his club (and later a diamond rod) resting over his arm.[36] This unusual representation of Herakles is the same as the one on the back of Demetrius' coins, and it is exclusively associated to him (and his sonEuthydemus II), seen only on the back of his coins.
Soon, the figure of the Buddha was incorporated within architectural designs, such as Corinthian pillars and friezes. Scenes of the life of the Buddha are typically depicted in a Greek architectural environment, with protagonist wearing Greek clothes.
Deities from the Greek mythological pantheon also tend to be incorporated in Buddhist representations, displaying a strong syncretism. In particular,Herakles (of the type of the Demetrius coins, with club resting on the arm) has been used abundantly as the representation ofVajrapani, the protector of the Buddha.[37] Other Greek deities abundantly used in Greco-Buddhist art are representation ofAtlas, and the Greek wind godBoreas. Atlas in particular tends to be involved as a sustaining elements in Buddhist architectural elements. Boreas became the Japanese wind godFujin through the Greco-Buddhist Wardo/Oado and ChineseFeng Bo/Feng Po ("Uncle Wind"; among various other names). The mother deityHariti was inspired byTyche.
Particularly under the Kushans, there are also numerous representations of richly adorned, princelyBodhisattvas all in a very realistic Greco-Buddhist style. TheBodhisattvas, characteristic of theMahayana form of Buddhism, are represented under the traits of Kushan princes, completed with their canonical accessories.
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Winged cupids are another popular motif in Greco-Buddhist art. They usually fly in pair, holding awreath, the Greek symbol of victory and kingship, over the Buddha.
These figures, also known as "apsarases" were extensively adopted in Buddhist art, especially throughout East Asia, in forms derivative to the Greco-Buddhist representation. The progressive evolution of the style can be seen in the art ofQizil andDunhuang. It is unclear however if the concept of the flying cupids was brought to India from the West, of if it had an independent Indian origin, although Boardman considers it a Classical contribution: "Another Classical motif we found in India is the pair of hovering winged figures, generally called apsaras." (Boardman)
Scenes of cupids holding richgarlands, sometimes adorned with fruits, is another very popular Gandharan motif, directly inspired from Greek art. It is sometimes argued that the only concession to Indian art appears in the anklets worn by the cupids. These scenes had a very broad influence, as far asAmaravati on the eastern coast of India, where the cupids are replaced byyakṣas.
Some Greco-Buddhist friezes represent groups of donors or devotees, giving interesting insights into the cultural identity of those who participated in the Buddhist cult.
Some groups, often described as the "Buner reliefs," usually dated to the 1st century AD, depict Greeks in perfect Hellenistic style, either in posture, rendering, or clothing (wearing the Greekchiton andhimation). It is sometimes even difficult to perceive an actual religious message behind the scenes. (The devotee scene on the right might, with doubt, depict of the presentation of PrinceSiddharta to his bride. It may also just be a festive scene.)
About a century later, friezes also depict Kushan devotees, usually with the Buddha as the central figure.
Various fantastic animal deities of Hellenic origin were used as decorative elements in Buddhist temples, often triangular friezes in staircases or in front of Buddhist altars. The origin of these motifs can be found in Greece in the 5th century BC, and later in the designs of Greco-Bactrian perfume trays as those discovered inSirkap. Among the most popular fantastic animals aretritons, ichthyo-centaurs andketossea-monsters. Similar fantastic animals are found in ancient Egyptian reliefs, and might therefore have been passed on to Bactria and India independently.
As fantastic animals of the sea, they were, in early Buddhism, supposed to safely bring the souls of dead people to Paradise beyond the waters. These motifs were later adopted in Indian art, where they influenced the depiction of the Indian monstermakara,Varuna's mount.
The later part of Greco-Buddhist art in northwestern India is usually associated with theKushan Empire. The Kushans were nomadic people who started migrating from theTarim Basin inCentral Asia from around 170 BC and ended up founding an empire in northwestern India from the 2nd century BC. After conquering the lands once inhabited by Greco-Bactrians and Indo-Greeks, the Kushan Empire adopted Greco-Buddhist art.
The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara essentially ends with the 5th-7th centuries. A late evolution is the appearance of a halo and mandorla surrounding the Buddha figure.[38] The last stages correspond roughly to the destruction of theAlchon Huns, when the art of Gandhara, becomes essentially extinct. When Xuanzang visited northwestern India inc. 630 AD, he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined, and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins.[39]
Examples of the influence of Hellenistic or Greco-Buddhist art on the art of theShunga Empire (183-73 BC) are usually faint. The main religion, at least at the beginning, seems to have beenHinduism, although some late Buddhist realizations inMadhya Pradesh as also known, such as some architectural expansions that were done at thestupas ofSanchi andBharhut, originally started under KingAshoka.
The representations of the Buddha inMathura, in central northern India, are generally dated slightly later than those of Gandhara, although not without debate, and are also much less numerous. Up to that point, Indian Buddhist art had essentially been aniconic, avoiding representation of the Buddha, except for his symbols, such as the wheel or theBodhi tree, although some archaic Mathuran sculptural representation ofYaksas (earth divinities) have been dated to the 1st century BC. Even these Yaksas indicate some Hellenistic influence, possibly dating back to the occupation of Mathura by the Indo-Greeks during the 2nd century BC.
In terms of artistic predispositions for the first representations of the Buddha, Greek art provided a very natural and centuries-old background for an anthropomorphic representation of a divinity, while on the contrary "there was nothing in earlier Indian statuary to suggest such a treatment of form or dress, and the Hindu pantheon provided no adequate model for an aristocratic and wholly human deity" (Boardman).
The Mathura sculptures incorporate many Hellenistic elements, such as the general idealistic realism, and key design elements such as the curly hair, and folded garment. Specific Mathuran adaptations tend to reflect warmer climatic conditions, as they consist in a higher fluidity of the clothing, which progressively tend to cover only one shoulder instead of both. Also, facial types also tend to become more Indianized. Banerjee inHellenism in ancient India describes "the mixed character of the Mathura School in which we find on the one hand, a direct continuation of the old Indian art ofBharhut andSanchi and on the other hand, the classical influence derived from Gandhara".
The influence of Greek art can be felt beyond Mathura, as far asAmaravati on the East coast of India, as shown by the usage of Greek scrolls in combination with Indian deities. Other motifs such as Greek chariots pulled by four horses can also be found in the same area.
Incidentally,Hindu art started to develop from the 1st to the 2nd century AD and found its first inspiration in the Buddhist art of Mathura. It progressively incorporated a profusion of original Hindu stylistic and symbolic elements however, in contrast with the general balance and simplicity of Buddhist art.
The art of Mathura features frequent sexual imagery. Female images with bare breasts, nude below the waist, displaying labia and female genitalia are common. These images are more sexually explicit than those of earlier or later periods.
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It has been suggested that the art ofDevnimori inGujarat, dated to the 4th century AD, represented a Western Indian artistic tradition, based on the influence of the Greco-Buddhist art ofGandhara, that was anterior to the rise ofGupta Empire art, and that it may have influenced it, and have influenced the art of theAjanta Caves,Sarnath and other places from the 5th century onward.[41] Devnimori may also have received some influence fromMathura art.[41] At Ajanta, some connections with the art of Gandhara can be noted, and there is evidence of a shared artistic idiom.[42]
The site of Devnimori included numerous terracotta Buddhist sculptures (but no stone sculptures), which are among the earliest sculptures that can be found inGujarat.[43] The style is clearly influenced by the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara.[44]
TheIndo-ScythianWestern Satraps (1st century AD-405 AD may have played a role in the transmission of the art of Gandhara to the westernDeccan region, as may also have the southern expansion of theAlchon Huns in the 6th-7th century.[42]
The art of Mathura acquired progressively more Indian elements and reached a very high sophistication during theGupta Empire, between the 4th and the 6th century AD. Theart of the Gupta is considered as the final pinnacle of Indian art reflecting Hindu, Buddhist and Jain iconography.
Hellenistic elements are still clearly visible in the purity of the statuary and the folds of the clothing, but are improved upon with a very delicate rendering of the draping and a sort of radiance reinforced by the usage of pink sandstone.Artistic details tend to be less realistic, as seen in the symbolic shell-like curls used to render the hairstyle of the Buddha.
Greco-Buddhist artistic influences naturally followed Buddhism in its expansion to Central and East Asia from the 1st century BC.
Bactria was under direct Greek control for more than two centuries from the conquests ofAlexander the Great in 332 BC to the end of theGreco-Bactrian kingdom around 125 BC. The art of Bactria was almost perfectly Hellenistic as shown by the archaeological remains ofGreco-Bactrian cities such asAlexandria on the Oxus (Ai-Khanoum), or the numismatic art of the Greco-Bactrian kings, often considered as the best of the Hellenistic world, and including the largest silver and gold coins ever minted by the Greeks.
When Buddhism expanded in Central Asia from the 1st century AD, Bactria saw the results of theGreco-Buddhist syncretism arrive on its territory from India, and a new blend of sculptural representation remained until the Islamic invasions.
The most striking of these realizations are theBuddhas of Bamyan. They tend to vary between the 5th and the 9th century AD. Their style is strongly inspired by Hellenistic culture.
In another area of Bactria calledFondukistan, some Greco-Buddhist art survived until the 7th century in Buddhist monasteries, displaying a strong Hellenistic influence combined with Indian decorativeness and mannerism, and some influence by theSasanid Persians.
Most of the remaining art of Bactria was destroyed from the 5th century onward: the Buddhists were often blamed foridolatry and tended to be persecuted by theiconoclastic Muslims. Destructions continued during theAfghanistan War, and especially by theTaliban regime in 2001. The most famous case is that of the destruction of theBuddhas of Bamyan. Ironically, most of the remaining art from Afghanistan still extant was removed from the country during the Colonial period. In particular, a rich collection exists at theMusee Guimet in France.
The art of theTarim Basin, also calledSerindian art, is the art that developed from the 2nd through the 11th century inSerindia orXinjiang, the western region of China that forms part ofCentral Asia. It derives from the art of theGandhara and clearly combines Indian traditions with Greek and Roman influences. Buddhist missionaries travelling on theSilk Road introduced this art, along withBuddhism itself, into Serindia, where it mixed with Chinese and Persian influences.
The arts of China, Korea and Japan adopted Greco-Buddhist influences, but also added many local elements as well. What remains identifiable from Greco-Buddhist art arerealism in sculpture, clothing with elaborate folds, curly hairstyles, and winged figures holding wreaths.
Greco-Buddhist influences are found in Chinese Buddhist art, with local and temporal variations depending on the dynasties that adopted Buddhism.Money tree artifacts from theHan dynasty often contain small depictions of the Buddha similar to Gandhara styles, such as the highushnisha, vertical hair bun, moustache, and symmetrical depictions of the robe and folds of the arms.[45]
SomeNorthern Wei andNorthern Qi statues are reminiscent of Gandharan style standing Buddhas, although in a more symbolic style. SomeEastern Wei statues display Buddhas with elaborate Greek-style robe folds, and surmounted by flying figures holding a wreath.
In Japan, Buddhist art developed as the country converted to Buddhism in AD 548. After the adoption of Buddhism, items of theAsuka Period display a classical style, with Hellenistic dress and realism characteristic of Greco-Buddhist art. Other art incorporated Chinese and Korean influences, so that Japanese Buddhism became varied in its expression. Elements of Greco-Buddhist art remain to this day, such as depictions of the Buddha with Greek style clothing folds.[46]
Greek influence is also found in depictions of the wind godFūjin, which shows similarities with the godBoreas. Both hold a "wind bag" above their head in a similar pose.[47]
 Left: Greek wind god fromHadda, 2nd century. Middle: wind god fromKizil,Tarim Basin, 7th century. Right: Japanese wind godFujin, 17th century. |  1)Herakles (Louvre Museum). 2)Herakles on coin ofGreco-Bactrian kingDemetrius I. 3)Vajrapani, the protector of the Buddha, depicted as Herakles inGandhara. 4)Nio gate guardian, manifestation ofVajrapani |
The Indian civilization proved very influential on the cultures ofSoutheast Asia. Most countries adopted Indian writing and culture, together withHinduism andMahayana andTheravadaBuddhism.
The influence of Greco-Buddhist art is still visible in most of the representation of the Buddha in Southeast Asia, through their idealism, realism and details of dress, although they tend to intermix with IndianHindu art, and they progressively acquire more local elements.
| Part ofa series on the |
| History of Greek art |
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Medieval Greece |
Post-Byzantine Greece |
| Timeline and influence of Greco-Buddhist art | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Periods | Northern Asia | Central Asia | Gandhara | India | Southeast Asia |
| 5th century BCE | Birth ofBuddhism | ||||
| 4th century BCE | Occupation by Alexander the Great (330 BCE) | ||||
| 3rd-2nd century BCE | Seleucid Empire (300-250BCE) ---------- Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250-125 BCE) (Hellenistic art)
| Mauryan Empire (321-185 BCE) (Aniconic art)
| Introduction of Buddhism toMyanmar | ||
| 2nd-1st century BCE | China,Han dynasty First mention of Buddhist statues brought from Central Asia (120 BCE)
| Indo-Greek kingdom (180 BCE-10 CE) Buddhist symbolism and proselytism
| Shunga Empire (185-73 BCE)
| ||
| 1st century BCE | Yuezhi Nomadic invaders, who became Hellenized and propagated Buddhism | Indo-Scythians (80-20 CE)
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| 1st century CE | Official start ofBuddhism in China. Arrival of statues of the Buddha in 70 CE. | Indo-Parthians
| Art ofMathura
| ||
| 1st-3rd century CE | First known Buddha statues in China (laterHan, c.200 CE) | Kushan Empire (10-350 CE)
| |||
| 4th-6th century CE | Tarim Basin China  Start ofBuddhism in Japan | Bactria | Gupta Empire (320-550 CE)
| Mahayana Buddhism inSiam,Cambodia andVietnam | |
| 7th-13th century CE | Japan | Islamic invasions | Pala Empire (11th century)  | Southeast Asia Introduction ofTheravada fromSri Lanka in the 11th century | |
![Foreigner on a horse. The medallions are dated circa 115 BC.[26]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSanchi_Stupa_2_man_on_horse.jpg)
![Lakshmi with lotus and two child attendants, probably derived from similar images of Venus[28]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aLakshmi_Sanchi_Stupa_2.jpg)
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Media related toGreco-Buddhist art at Wikimedia Commons
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