"Baktria" redirects here. For the historical region, seeBactria.
Kingdom of Bactria
Βασιλεία τῆς Βακτριανῆς Basileía tês Baktrianês
256 BC – c. 120 BC
Eucratides the Great wearing a crestedBoeotian helmet, shown on his gold 20-stater, the largest gold coin ever minted in the ancient world, c. 2nd century BC.
Approximate maximum extent of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom circa 170 BC, under the reign of Eucratides the Great, including the regions ofTapuria andTraxiane to the west,Sogdiana andFerghana to the north,Bactria andArachosia to the south.
Although a Greek population was already present inBactria by the 5th century BC,Alexander the Great conquered the region by 327 BC[7] and founded many cities, most of them namedAlexandria, and further settled withMacedonians and otherGreeks. After the death of Alexander, control of Bactria passed on to his generalSeleucus I Nicator.[8] The fertility and the prosperity of the land by the early 3rd century BC led to the creation of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom by Diodotus as a successor state of the Seleucid empire. The Bactrian Greeks grew increasingly more powerful and invaded north-westernIndia between 190 and 180 BC under kingDemetrius, the son ofEuthydemus. This invasion led to the creation of theIndo-Greek kingdom, as a successor state of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, and was subsequently ruled by kingsPantaleon andApollodotus I. Historical records indicate that many rich and prosperous cities were present in the kingdom,[9][10][11] but only a few such cities have been excavated, such asAi-Khanoum andBactra. The city of Ai-Khanoum, in north-eastern Afghanistan, had all the hallmarks of a true Hellenistic city with aGreek theater,gymnasium and some houses with colonnaded courtyards.[12]
The kingdom reached its peak underEucratides the Great, who seems to have seized power through acoup around 171 BC and created his own dynasty. Eucratides also invaded India and successfully fought against the Indo-Greek kings. However, soon the kingdom began to decline. TheParthians and nomadic tribes such asSakas andYuezhi became a major threat.[13] Eucratides was killed by his own son in about 145 BC, which may have further destabilised the kingdom.Heliocles was the last Greek king to rule in Bactria.[14]
Even after the fall of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, their rich Hellenistic influence remained strong for many more centuries. The Yuezhi invaders settled in Bactria and becameHellenized. They subsequently founded theKushan empire around 30 AD, and adopted theGreek alphabet to write their language and added Greek deities to theirpantheon. The Greco-Bactrian city of Ai-Khanoum was at the doorstep of India and known for its high level of Hellenistic sophistication. Greek art travelled from Bactria with the Indo-Greeks and influenced Indian art, religion and culture, leading to newsyncretic art calledGreco-Buddhist art.
Bactria was inhabited by Greek settlers since the time ofDarius I, when the majority of the population ofBarca, inCyrenaica, was deported to the region for refusing to surrender assassins.[15] Greek influence increased underXerxes I, after the descendants of Greek priests who had once lived nearDidyma (westernAsia Minor) were forcibly relocated in Bactria,[16] and later on with other exiled Greeks, most of them prisoners of war. Greek communities and language were already common in the area by the time thatAlexander the Great conquered Bactria in 328 BC.[17]
Gold coin ofDiodotusc. 245 BC. The reverse showsZeus standing, holding aegis and thunderbolt. TheGreek inscription reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΙΟΔΟΤΟΥ,Basileōs Diodotou – "(of) King Diodotus".
Diodotus, thesatrap of Bactria (and probably the surrounding provinces) founded the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom when he seceded from theSeleucid Empire around 250 BC and becameBasileus, or kingDiodotus I of Bactria. The preserved ancient sources (see below) are somewhat contradictory, and the exact date of Bactrian independence has not been settled. Somewhat simplified, there is a high chronology (c. 255 BC) and a low chronology (c. 246 BC) for Diodotus' secession.[18] The high chronology has the advantage of explaining why the Seleucid kingAntiochus II issued very few coins in Bactria, as Diodotus would have become independent there early in Antiochus' reign.[19][page needed] On the other hand, the low chronology, from the mid-240s BC, has the advantage of connecting the secession of Diodotus I with theThird Syrian War, a catastrophic conflict for the Seleucid Empire.
Diodotus, the governor of the thousand cities of Bactria (Latin:Theodotus, mille urbium Bactrianarum praefectus), defected and proclaimed himself king; all the other people of the Orient followed his example and seceded from the Macedonians.[20]
The new kingdom, highly urbanized and considered one of the richest of the Orient (opulentissimum illud mille urbium Bactrianum imperium "The extremely prosperous Bactrian empire of the thousand cities", according to the historianJustin[21]), was to further grow in power and engage in territorial expansion to the east and the west:
The Greeks who caused Bactria to revolt grew so powerful on account of the fertility of the country that they became masters, not only ofAriana, but also of India, asApollodorus of Artemita says: and more tribes were subdued by them than by Alexander… Their cities wereBactra (also called Zariaspa, through which flows a river bearing the same name and emptying into theOxus), and Darapsa, and several others. Among these wasEucratidia,[22] which was named after its ruler.[23]
In 247 BC, thePtolemaic empire (the Greek rulers of Egypt following the death ofAlexander the Great) captured the Seleucid capital,Antioch. In the resulting power vacuum,Andragoras, the Seleucid satrap of Parthia, proclaimed independence from the Seleucids, declaring himself king. A decade later, he wasdefeated and killed byArsaces of Parthia, leading to the rise of aParthian Empire. This cut Bactria off from contact with the Greek world. Overland trade continued at a reduced rate, while sea trade betweenGreek Egypt and Bactria developed.
Diodotus was succeeded by his sonDiodotus II, who allied himself with the ParthianArsaces in his fight againstSeleucus II:
Soon after, relieved by the death of Diodotus, Arsaces made peace and concluded an alliance with his son, also by the name of Diodotus; some time later he fought against Seleucos who came to punish the rebels, and he prevailed: the Parthians celebrated this day as the one that marked the beginning of their freedom.[24]
Coin depicting the Greco-Bactrian kingEuthydemus, 230–200 BC. The reverse showsHeracles seated, holding club in right hand. TheGreek inscription reads:ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΕΥΘΥΔΗΜΟΥ,Basileōs Euthydēmou – "(of) King Euthydemus".
Euthydemus, an Ionian Greek fromMagnesia according toPolybius,[25][26] and possibly satrap ofSogdiana, overthrew the dynasty of Diodotus II around 230–220 BC and started his own dynasty. Euthydemus's control extended to Sogdiana, going beyond the city ofAlexandria Eschate founded by Alexander the Great inFerghana:[citation needed]
And they also held Sogdiana, situated above Bactriana towards the east between the Oxus River, which forms the boundary between the Bactrians and the Sogdians, and theIaxartes River. And the Iaxartes forms also the boundary between the Sogdians and the nomads.[13]
Euthydemus was attacked by the Seleucid rulerAntiochus III around 210 BC. Although he commanded 10,000 horsemen, Euthydemus initially lost abattle on theArius[27] and had to retreat. He then successfullyresisted a three-year siege in the fortified city ofBactra, before Antiochus finally decided to recognize the new ruler, and to offer one of his daughters to Euthydemus's sonDemetrius around 206 BC.[28] Classical accounts also relate that Euthydemus negotiated peace with Antiochus III by suggesting that he deserved credit for overthrowing the original rebel Diodotus and that he was protecting Central Asia from nomadic invasions thanks to his defensive efforts:
... for if he did not yield to this demand, neither of them would be safe: Seeing that great hordes of Nomads were close at hand, who were a danger to both; and that if they admitted them into the country, it would certainly be utterly barbarised.[26]
In an inscription found in theKuliab area ofTajikistan, in eastern Greco-Bactria, and dated to 200–195 BC,[29] a Greek by the name of Heliodotus, dedicating a fire altar toHestia, mentions Euthydemus as the greatest of all kings, and his sonDemetrius I as "Demetrios Kallinikos", meaning "Demetrius the Glorious Conqueror":[30][29]
"Heliodotus dedicated this fragrant altar forHestia, venerable goddess, illustrious amongst all, in the grove ofZeus, with beautiful trees; he made libations and sacrifices so that the greatest of all kingsEuthydemus, as well as his son, the glorious, victorious and remarkableDemetrius, be preserved of all pains, with the help ofTyche with divine thoughts."[31][32]
Following the departure of the Seleucid army, the Bactrian kingdom seems to have expanded. In the west, areas in north-easternIran may have been absorbed, possibly as far as intoParthia, whose ruler had been defeated byAntiochus the Great. These territories possibly are identical with the Bactrian satrapies ofTapuria andTraxiane.
Expansion into the Indian subcontinent (around 180 BC)
Demetrius, the son of Euthydemus, started an invasion of the subcontinent before 180 BC, and a few years after theMauryan empire had been overthrown by theShunga dynasty. Historians differ on the motivations behind the invasion. Some historians suggest that the invasion of the subcontinent was intended to show their support for theMauryan empire, and to protect the Buddhist faith from the religious persecutions of theShungas as alleged by Buddhist scriptures (Tarn). Other historians have argued however that the accounts of these persecutions have been exaggerated (Thapar,Lamotte).
Demetrius may have been as far as the imperial capitalPataliputra in today's eastern India (todayPatna). However, these campaigns are typically attributed toMenander. His conquests were mentioned along with that of Menander by the historian Strabo, as having "subdued more tribes than Alexander." The invasion was completed by 175 BC. This established in the northwestern Indian Subcontinent what is called theIndo-Greek Kingdom, which lasted for almost two centuries until around 10 AD. The Buddhist faith flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, especially Menander who was arguably the most powerful of them all. It was also a period of great cultural syncretism, exemplified by the development ofGreco-Buddhism in the region ofGandhara.
Silvertetradrachm of KingEucratides I, reigned c. 171–145 BC. The obverse shows the King wearing a crested helmet with adiadem. The reverse shows theDioscuri on horseback, with theGreek inscription:ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΕΥΚΡΑΤΙΔΟΥ,Basileōs Megalou Eukratidou – "(of) Great King Eucratides".
Back in Bactria,Eucratides I, either a general of Demetrius or an ally of theSeleucids, managed to overthrow the Euthydemid dynasty and establish his own rule, the short-lived Eucratid dynasty,[33] around 170 BC, probably dethroningAntimachus I andAntimachus II. The Indian branch of the Euthydemids tried to strike back. An Indian king called Demetrius (very likelyDemetrius II) is said to have returned to Bactria with 60,000 men to oust the usurper, but he apparently was defeated and killed in the encounter:
Bilingual coin of Eucratides I in the Indian standard, on the obverseGreek inscription reads:ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΕΥΚΡΑΤΙΔΟΥ,Basileōs Megalou Eukratidou – "(of) Great King Eucratides"; on the reversePali language inKharoshthi legend reads:Maharajasa Evukratidasa, "of Great King Eucratides".[34]
Eucratides led many wars with great courage, and, while weakened by them, was put under siege by Demetrius, king of the Indians. He made numerous sorties, and managed to vanquish 60,000 enemies with 300 soldiers, and thus liberated after four months, he put India under his rule.[35]
Eucratides campaigned extensively in present-day northwestern India, and ruled a vast territory, as indicated by his minting of coins in many Indian mints, possibly as far as theJhelum River inPunjab. In the end, however, he was repulsed by the Indo-Greek kingMenander I, who managed to create a huge unified territory.
In a rather confused account,Justin explains that Eucratides was killed on the field by "his son and joint king", who would be his own son, eitherEucratides II orHeliocles I (although there are speculations that it could have been his enemy's sonDemetrius II). The son drove over Eucratides' bloodied body with his chariot and left him dismembered without a sepulcher:
As Eucratides returned from India, he was killed on the way back by his son, whom he had associated to his rule, and who, without hiding his parricide, as if he didn't kill a father but an enemy, ran with his chariot over the blood of his father, and ordered the corpse to be left without a sepulture.[35]
During or after his Indian campaigns, Eucratides was attacked and defeated by theParthian kingMithridates I, possibly in alliance with partisans of the Euthydemids:
Gold 20-stater ofEucratides I, the largest gold coin of Antiquity. The coin weighs 169.2 grams, and has a diameter of 58 millimeters. The reverse shows theDioscuri on horseback.
The Bactrians, involved in various wars, lost not only their rule but also their freedom, as, exhausted by their wars against the Sogdians, the Arachotes, the Dranges, the Arians and the Indians, they were finally crushed, as if drawn of all their blood, by an enemy weaker than them, the Parthians.[35]
Following his victory, Mithridates I gained Bactria's territory west of theArius, the regions ofTapuria andTraxiane: "The satrapy Turiva and that of Aspionus were taken away from Eucratides by the Parthians."[13]
In the year 141 BC, the Greco-Bactrians seem to have entered in an alliance with the Seleucid kingDemetrius II to fight again against Parthia:
The people of the Orient welcomed his (Demetrius II's) arrival, partly because of the cruelty of the Arsacid king of the Parthians, partly because, used to the rule of the Macedonians, they disliked the arrogance of this new people. Thus, Demetrius, supported by the Persians, Elymes and Bactrians, routed the Parthians in numerous battles. At the end, deceived by a false peace treaty, he was taken prisoner.[36]
Heliocles I ended up ruling what territory remained. The defeat, both in the west and the east, may have left Bactria very weakened and open to nomadic invasions.
The migrations of theYuezhi through Central Asia, from around 176 BC–AD 30
A nomadic steppe people called theYuezhi inhabited a region thousands of miles to the east of Bactria on the edges of theHan Empire called theHexi Corridor. Shortly before 176 BC, theXiongnu invaded the Hexi Corridor, forcing the Yuezhi to flee the region. In 162 BC the Yuezhi were driven west to theIli River valley by the Xiongnu. In 132 they were driven out of the Ili valley by theWusun. The surviving Yuezhi migrated again south towards the territory just north of the Oxus River where they encountered and expelled a nomadic steppe nation calledSakastan.[37]
Gold artefacts of the Scythians in Bactria, at the site ofTillia tepe
Around 140 BC, easternScythians (theSaka, or Sacaraucae of Greek sources), apparently being pushed forward by the southward migration of theYuezhi started to invade various parts of Parthia and Bactria. Their invasion of Parthia is well documented: they attacked in the direction of the cities ofMerv,Hecatompolis andEcbatana. They managed to defeat and kill the Parthian kingPhraates II, son of Mithridates I, routing the Greek mercenary troops under his command (troops he had acquired during his victory overAntiochus VII). Again in 123 BC, Phraates's successor, his uncleArtabanus I, was killed by the Scythians.[38]
When theHan Chinese diplomatZhang Qian visited the Yuezhi around 126 BC, trying to obtain their alliance to fight theXiongnu, he explained that the Yuezhi were settled north of theOxus but also held under their sway the territory south of Oxus, which makes up the remainder of Bactria.
According to Zhang Qian, the Yuezhi represented a considerable force of between 100,000 and 200,000 mounted archer warriors,[c] with customs identical to those of the Xiongnu, which would probably have easily defeated Greco-Bactrian forces (in 208 BC when the Greco-Bactrian kingEuthydemus I confronted the invasion of the Seleucid kingAntiochus III the Great, he commanded 10,000 horsemen).[27] Zhang Qian actually visited Bactria (namedDaxia inChinese) in 126 BC, and portrays a country which was totally demoralized and whose political system had vanished, although its urban infrastructure remained:
Daxia (Bactria) is located over 2,000li southwest of Dayuan, south of the Gui (Oxus) river. Its people cultivate the land and have cities and houses. Their customs are like those of Dayuan. It has no great ruler but only a number of petty chiefs ruling the various cities. The people are poor in the use of arms and afraid of battle, but they are clever at commerce. After the Great Yuezhi moved west and attacked Daxia, the entire country came under their sway. The population of the country is large, numbering some 1,000,000 or more persons. The capital is called the city of Lanshi (Bactra) and has a market where all sorts of goods are bought and sold. (Records of the Great Historian bySima Qian, quoting Zhang Qian, translation byBurton Watson)
The Yuezhi further expanded southward into Bactria around 120 BC, apparently further pushed out by invasions from the northernWusun. It seems they also pushed Scythian tribes before them, which continued to India, where they came to be identified asIndo-Scythians.
Silver coin ofPlato of Bactria, wearing a diadem. The reverse showsHelios on his chariot facing forward. Greek legend reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΠΛΑΤΩΝΟΣ,Basileōs Epiphanous Platōnos – "(of) King Plato the God-Manifest."
This invasion of Bactria is also described in western Classical sources from the 1st century BC:
The best known tribes are those who deprived the Greeks of Bactriana, the Asii, Pasiani,Tochari, and Sacarauli, who came from the country on the other side of theJaxartes, opposite theSacae andSogdiani.[40]
Around that time the kingHeliocles abandoned Bactria and moved his capital to theKabul valley, from where he ruled his Indian holdings. Apparently there were two other Greco-Bactrian kings preceding Heliocles in the same region and from the same dynasty, named Eucratides II andPlato Epiphanes, the latter probably being a brother of Eucratides I. Since Heliocles left the Bactrian territory, he is technically the last Greco-Bactrian king, although several of his descendants, moving beyond the Hindu Kush, would form the western part of theIndo-Greek kingdom. The last of these "western" Indo-Greek kings,Hermaeus, would rule until around 70 BC, when the Yuezhi again invaded his territory in theParopamisadae (while the "eastern" Indo-Greek kings would continue to rule until around AD 10 in the area of thePunjab region).
Silver coin ofHeliocles (r. 150–125 BC), the last Greco-Bactrian king. The reverse showsZeus holding thunderbolt and sceptre. Greek legend reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΥ ΗΛΙΟΚΛΕΟΥΣ,Basileōs Dikaiou Hēliokleous – "(of) King Heliocles the Just".
Overall, theYuezhi remained in Bactria for more than a century. They became Hellenized to some degree, as suggested by their adoption of the Greek alphabet to write their later Iranian court language,[41][42] and by numerous remaining coins, minted in the style of the Greco-Bactrian kings, with the text in Greek.
There is evidence for the persistence of Greek populations in Bactria after the collapse of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. For example, anobol of a previously unknown ruler called Antigonus has been found and it seems he ruled after the kingdom's collapse, as evidenced by the use of a lunate sigma and the lower art quality of the coin, perhaps dating from the end of the 1st century BC. Antigonus might have briefly won a battle against the Yuezhi or the Saka before he was overrun himself.[43]
Around 12 BC the Yuezhi then moved further to northern India where they established theKushan Empire.
Coin showing Eucratides I as a warrior wearing a crested helmet adorned with bull's horn and ear. He also wears adiadem underneath, while holding a spear in his right hand; obverse.
Before the Greek conquest, the armies of Bactria were overwhelmingly composed of cavalry and were well known as effective soldiers, making up large portions of theAchaemenid cavalry contingents. 2,000 Bactrian horsemen fought at theGranicus against Alexander and 9,000 at theBattle of Gaugamela on the left flank of Darius' army.Herodotus also mentions the widespread use of chariots among the Bactrians. After Alexander's conquest of Bactria, Bactrian cavalry units served in his army during theinvasion of India and after the Indian campaign, Alexander enlarged his elitecompanion cavalry by adding Bactrians, Sogdians and other east Iranian cavalrymen.[44] BothAeschylus (The Persians, v. 318) andCurtius mention that Bactria was able to field a force of 30,000 horse. Most of these horsemen were lightly armed, using bows and javelins before closing with sword and spear. Herodotus describes the Persian cavalry of Mardonius at theBattle of Plataea (which included Bactrians) as horse archers (hippotoxotai). Bactrian infantry is described by Herodotus as wearing caps in the Median style, short spears and reedScythian style bows.[citation needed]
Alexander andSeleucus I both settledMacedonians and other Greeks in Bactria, and archeological finds in the region have also attested to a major Macedonian presence, as evidenced by the presence of symbols, style of coinage, and epigraphic names.[45][46] Greek garrisons in the satrapy of Bactria were housed in fortresses calledphrouria and at major cities. Military colonists were settled in the countryside and were each given an allotment of land called akleros. These colonists numbered in the tens of thousands, and were trained in the fashion of theMacedonian army. A Greek army in Bactria during the anti-Macedonian revolt of 323 BC numbered 23,000.[44]
The army of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom was then a multi-ethnic force with Greek colonists making up large portions of the infantry as pike phalanxes, supported by light infantry units of local Bactrians and mercenary javelin-wieldingThureophoroi.[47] The cavalry arm was very large for a Hellenistic army and composed mostly of native Bactrian,Sogdian and otherIndo-Iranian light horsemen. Polybius mentions 10,000 horse at theBattle of the Arius river in 208 BC. Greco-Bactrian armies also included units of heavily armoredcataphracts and small elite units ofcompanion cavalry. The third arm of the Greco-Bactrian army was the Indianwar elephants, which are depicted in some coins with a tower (thorakion) orhowdah housing men armed with bows and javelins. This force grew as the Greco-Bactrian kingdom expanded into India and was widely depicted in Greco-Bactrian coinage. Other units in the Bactrian military included mercenaries or levies from various surrounding peoples such as theScythians,Dahae, Indians, andParthians.[citation needed]
Greeks first began settling the region long before Alexander conquered it. ThePersian Empire had a policy of exiling rebelling Greek communities to that region long before it fell to Greek conquest. Therefore, it had a considerable Greek community that was expanded upon after Macedonian conquest.
The Greco-Bactrians were known for their high level ofHellenistic sophistication, and kept regular contact with both theMediterranean and neighbouring India. They were on friendly terms with India and exchanged ambassadors.
Their cities, such asAi-Khanoum in northeasternAfghanistan (probablyAlexandria on the Oxus), and Bactra (modernBalkh) where Hellenistic remains have been found, demonstrate a sophisticated Hellenistic urban culture. This site gives a snapshot of Greco-Bactrian culture around 145 BC, as the city was burnt to the ground around that date during nomadic invasions and never re-settled. Ai-Khanoum "has all the hallmarks of a Hellenistic city, with a Greektheater,gymnasium and some Greek houses with colonnaded courtyards" (Boardman). Remains of ClassicalCorinthian columns were found in excavations of the site, as well as various sculptural fragments. In particular a huge foot fragment in excellent Hellenistic style was recovered, which is estimated to have belonged to a 5–6 meter tall statue.
Stone block with the inscriptions of Kineas in Greek.Ai Khanoum.
One of the inscriptions in Greek found at Ai-Khanoum, the Herôon of Kineas, has been dated to 300–250 BC, and describesDelphic maxims:
As children, learn good manners. As young men, learn to control the passions. In middle age, be just. In old age, give good advice. Then die, without regret.
Many other Greco-Bactrian cities have been identified, for exampleAlexandria Eschate (in modernTajikistan),Eucratideia, and another city named Amphipolis. The latter being a previously unknown city which was mentioned on a Bactrian document and was clearly named afterAmphipolis in ancient Macedonia.[45] Excavated cities include Kampir Tepe inUzbekistan, as well asSaksanokhur and Takht-i Sangin in Tajikistan (archaeological searches by a Soviet team under B.A. Litvinski),[48] or inDal'verzin Tepe.
BronzeHeracles statuette. Ai Khanoum. 2nd century BC.
Sculpture of an old man, possibly a philosopher. Ai Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
Frieze of a naked man wearing achlamys. Ai Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
Gargoyle in the form of a Greek comic mask. Ai Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
Plate depictingCybele pulled by lions. Ai Khanoum.
Mosaic depicting theMacedonian sun, Ai Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
Portrait of a man, found in the administrative palace, 2nd century BC.
A Bactrian tax receipt written in Greek mentioning the kings Antimachus I, Eumenes and perhaps Antimachus II, 2nd century BC.
Takht-i Sangin (Tajik: "Throne of Stone") is an archaeological site located near the confluence of theVakhsh andPanj rivers, the source of theAmu Darya, in southernTajikistan. During theHellenistic period it was a city of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom with a large temple dedicated to theOxus (Vakhsh river), which remained in use in the followingKushan period, until the third century AD. The site may have been the source of theOxus Treasure.[49]
Ionic pillar, cella of the Temple of the Oxus, Takht-i Sangin, late 4th – early 3rd century BCE.[48]
Hellenistic silenusMarsyas from Takhti Sangin, with dedication in Greek to the god of the Oxus, by "Atrosokes" (a Bactrian name). Temple of the Oxus, Takht-i Sangin, 200–150 BCE.Tajikistan National Museum.[48][51]
Alexander-Heracles head, Takht-i Sangin, Temple of the Oxus, 3rd century BCE.[48]
Some of the Greco-Bactrian coins, and those of their successors the Indo-Greeks, are considered the finest examples of Greek numismatic art with "a nice blend of realism and idealization", including the largest coins to be minted in the Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted byEucratides (reigned 171–145 BC), the largest silver coin by the Indo-Greek kingAmyntas Nicator (reigned c. 95–90 BC). The portraits "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland depictions of their royal contemporaries further West" (Roger Ling, "Greece and the Hellenistic World").
Coin of kingAntimachus I wearing a Macedonian kausia hat. His portrait is oftentimes shown possessing a slight smile, as in this example.
Such portraits show high levels of detail with some kings seen smiling, while others are shown aging throughout their reign, even depicting old age on their coins. Such realistic imagery on coins seems to have been very important to the Greco-Bactrian kings, who wanted to display their individuality or to distinguish themselves from the style of other contemporary Hellenistic kingdoms.[52]
Greco-Bactrian coins also depict the kings wearing distinct headgear, such as helmets modelled on theBoeotian cavalry helmet ofAlexander the Great, or the Macedoniankausia. This is unique to the Greco-Bactrian kings, who first featured such designs on their coins as other Hellenistic rulers are shown to only wear the diadem.[53][54] As such the Greco-Bactrians are especially known for their innovative coinage designs. Further examples include the use of different metal alloys for their coins and the issue of bilingual coinage, using Greek on the obverse and an Indian language (such asPali) in theKharoshti orBrahmi scripts on the reverse. Local Indian symbols and deities are also depicted, i.e. Buddhist symbols and some Hindu deities (see Influence on Indian art subsection below). This syncretic design was first introduced after king Demetrius I of Bactria conquered areas of the Indian subcontinent between 190 and 180 BC, with kingPantaleon being the first to issue coins of the Indian standard, when the Greeks truly started ruling over Indian populations.[55]
To the north, Euthydemus also ruledSogdiana andFerghana, and there are indications that fromAlexandria Eschate the Greco-Bactrians may have led expeditions as far asKashgar andÜrümqi inXinjiang, leading to the first known contacts between China and the West around 220 BC. The Greek historianStrabo too writes that: "they extended their empire even as far as theSeres (Chinese) and thePhryni". (Strabo, XI.XI.I).[23]
Several statuettes and representations of Greek soldiers have been found north of theTian Shan, on the doorstep to China, and are today on display in theXinjiang museum atÜrümqi (Boardman).[d] Middle Eastern or Greek influences on Chinese art have also been suggested (Hirth,Rostovtzeff). Designs withrosette flowers, geometric lines,meanders and glass inlays, suggestive of Egyptian, Persian, and/or Hellenistic influences,[e] can be found on some earlyHan dynasty bronze mirrors.[f]
Some speculate that Greek influence is found in the artworks of the burial site of China's first EmperorQin Shi Huang, dating back to the 3rd century BC, including in the manufacture of the famousTerracotta Army. This idea suggested that Greek artists may have come to China at that time to train local artisans in making sculptures[59][60] However, this idea is disputed.[61]
Numismatics also suggest that some technology exchanges may have occurred on these occasions: the Greco-Bactrians were the first in the world to issuecupro-nickel (75:25 ratio) coins,[62] an alloy technology only known by the Chinese at the time under the name "White copper" (some weapons from theWarring States period were in copper-nickel alloy).[63] The practice of exporting Chinese metals, in particular iron, for trade is attested around that period. Kings Euthydemus I, Euthydemus II,Agathocles andPantaleon made these coin issues around 170 BC. An alternative suggestion is that the metal in the coinage derived from a mine where a cupro-nickel alloy occurred naturally, perhapsAnarak in easternIran.[64] Copper-nickel would not be used again in coinage until the 19th century.
The presence of Chinese people in India from ancient times is also suggested by the accounts of the "Ciñas" in theMahabharata and theManu Smriti. When the famousHan dynasty explorer and ambassadorZhang Qian visited Bactria in approximately 126 BC, he reported the presence of Chinese products in the Bactrian markets:
"When I was in Bactria (Daxia)", Zhang Qian reported, "I saw bamboo canes fromQiong andcloth made in theprovince of Shu (territories of southwestern China). When I asked the people how they had gotten such articles, they replied, "Our merchants go buy them in the markets of Shendu (India)."
The purpose of Zhang Qian's journey was to look for civilizations on the steppe that the Han could ally with against the Xiongnu. Upon his return, Zhang Qian informed the Chinese emperor HanWudi of the level of sophistication of the urban civilizations of Ferghana, Bactria and Parthia, who became interested in developing commercial relationships with them:
The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus:Ferghana (Dayuan) and the possessions ofBactria (Daxia) andParthia (Anxi) are large countries, full of rare things, with a population living in fixed abodes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of the Chinese people, and placing great value on the rich produce of China. (Hanshu, Former Han History).
A number of Chinese envoys were then sent to Central Asia, triggering the development of theSilk Road from the end of the 2nd century BC.[65]
Contacts with the Indian subcontinent (250–180 BC)
The Indian emperorChandragupta, founder of theMaurya Empire, conquered the northwestern subcontinent upon the death ofAlexander the Great around 323 BC. However, contacts were kept with his Greek neighbours in theSeleucid Empire, a dynastic alliance or the recognition of intermarriage between Greeks and Indians were established (described as an agreement onEpigamia in Ancient sources), and several Greeks, such as the historianMegasthenes, resided at the Mauryan court. Subsequently, each Mauryan emperor had a Greek ambassador at his court.
Chandragupta's grandsonAshoka converted to the Buddhist faith and became a great proselytizer in the line of the traditional Pali canon ofTheravada Buddhism, directing his efforts towards the Indo-Iranic and the Hellenistic worlds from around 250 BC. According to theEdicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek, he sent Buddhist emissaries to the Greek lands in Asia and as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts name each of the rulers of theHellenistic world at the time.
Some of the Greek populations that had remained in northwestern India apparently converted to Buddhism:
Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, theKambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, theAndhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions inDharma. (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika).
Furthermore, according toPali sources, some of Ashoka's emissaries were Greek Buddhist monks, indicating close religious exchanges between the two cultures:
When thethera (elder) Moggaliputta, the illuminator of the religion of the Conqueror (Ashoka), had brought the (third) council to an end ... he sent forth theras, one here and one there: ... and to Aparantaka (the "Western countries" corresponding toGujarat andSindh) he sent the Greek (Yona) namedDhammarakkhita ... and thethera Maharakkhita he sent into the country of the Yona. (Mahavamsa, XII).
Greco-Bactrians probably received these Buddhist emissaries (at least Maharakkhita, lit. "The Great Saved One", who was "sent to the country of the Yona") and somehow tolerated the Buddhist faith, although little proof remains. In the 2nd century AD, the Christian dogmatistClement of Alexandria recognized the existence of BuddhistSramanas among the Bactrians ("Bactrians" meaning "Oriental Greeks" in that period), and even their influence on Greek thought:
Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest utility, flourished in antiquity among the barbarians, shedding its light over the nations. And afterwards it came to Greece. First in its ranks were the prophets of theEgyptians; and theChaldeans among theAssyrians;[66] and theDruids among theGauls; and theSramanas among theBactrians ("Σαρμαναίοι Βάκτρων"); and the philosophers of theCelts; and theMagi of thePersians, who foretold the Saviour's birth, and came into the land ofJudea guided by a star. The Indiangymnosophists are also in the number, and the other barbarian philosophers. And of these there are two classes, some of them calledSramanas ("Σαρμάναι"), and othersBrahmins ("Βραφμαναι").[67]
The Greco-Bactrian city ofAi-Khanoum, being located at the doorstep of India, interacting with the Indian subcontinent, and having a rich Hellenistic culture, was in a unique position to influence Indian culture as well. It is considered that Ai-Khanoum may have been one of the primary actors in transmitting Western artistic influence to India, for example in the creation of thePillars of Ashoka or the manufacture of the quasi-IonicPataliputra capital, all of which were posterior to the establishment of Ai-Khanoum.[68]
The scope of adoption goes from designs such as thebead and reel pattern, the centralflame palmette design and a variety of othermoldings, to the lifelike rendering of animal sculpture and the design and function of the Ionicanta capital in the palace ofPataliputra.[69]
Coin ofAgathocles showing Indian deities. Obverse with Greek legend: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΑΓΑΘΟΚΛΕΟΥΣ,Basileōs Agathokleous, "(of) King Agathocles". Reverse withBrahmi legend: 𑀭𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀅𑀕𑀣𑀼𑀼𑀓𑁆𑀮𑁂𑀬𑁂𑀲,Rajane Agathuklayesa, "King Agathocles".
One of the last Greco-Bactrian kings,Agathocles of Bactria (ruled 190–180 BC), issued remarkable Indian-standard square coins bearing the first known representations of Indian deities, which have been variously interpreted asVishnu,Shiva,Vasudeva,Buddha orBalarama. Altogether, six such Indian-standard silverdrachmas in the name of Agathocles were discovered at Ai-Khanoum in 1970.[70][71][72] These coins seem to be the first known representations ofVedic deities on coins, and they display earlyAvatars ofVishnu:Balarama-Sankarshana with attributes consisting of theGada mace and theplow, andVasudeva-Krishna with theVishnu attributes of theShankha (a pear-shaped case or conch) and theSudarshana Chakra wheel.[71] Some other coins by Agathocles are also thought to represent theBuddhist lion and the Indian goddessLakshmi, consort ofVishnu.[72] The Indian coinage of Agathocles is few but spectacular. These coins at least demonstrate the readiness of Greek kings to represent deities of foreign origin. The dedication of a Greek envoy to the cult ofGaruda at theHeliodorus pillar inBesnagar could also be indicative of some level of religioussyncretism.
Commemorative coin ofAgathocles of Bactria (reigned 190–180 BC), for Alexander the Great. The obverse shows Alexander as Heracles, with the Greek inscription: ΑΛΕΧΑΝΔΡΟΥ ΤΟΥ ΦΙΛΙΠΠΟΥ,Alexandrou tou Philippou, "Of Alexander, son ofPhilip". The reverse shows seatedZeus Aëtophoros, and Greek inscription: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΟΝΤΟΣ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΥ ΑΓΑΘΟΚΛΕΟΥΣ,Basileuontos Dikaiou Agathokleous, "During the reign of Agathocles the Just".
Overall, the Greco-Bactrians and their successors the Indo-Greeks, created a significant and influential civilisation in the region. During their 250-year-long rule, and with their highly developed Hellenistic tradition, they firmly established the Greek language and religious ideas in both Central Asia andnorthwestern India. The Greek language and writing was so prominent in Bactria in particular, that the invading tribes who settled in the region adopted theGreek alphabet to write their own language.[73] TheBactrian language used in the region of modern-day Afghanistan continued to be written in the Greek script until the 9th century AD (nearly 1,000 years after the fall of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom). These tribes also heavily incorporated theGreek gods into their own religion and art.[74] TheIndo-Scythians,Indo-Parthians and theYuezhi (who later became theKushans), extensively copied the coin designs of the Greco-Bactrians (and the Indo-Greeks), but eventually this gave way to more diverse coin designs by the 1st century AD.
To the south, in the region ofArachosia, which was later controlled by the Indo-Greek kings, there is also evidence of persistence of Greek cities and language. For example, in his 1st-century ADParthian stations itinerary,Isidore of Charax describes an "Alexandropolis, the metropolis of Arachosia", which he said was still Greek even at such a late time.[75] TheKandahar Sophytos inscription from the same city, shows a real refinement of Greek language and culture so far east, and was likely written by a native man who had mastered the Greek language.[76][77] The Greco-Bactrians and especially the Indo-Greeks were highly influential in the creation of syncretic artistic movements in India. The most important example being theGreco-Buddhist art ofGandhara found in the region of modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, which includes designs such as the ornateIndo-Corinthian capitals, and the drapery of Buddhist clothing, with some elements later spreading as far as Pataliputra in India.[78]
Dates that overlap show that multiple kings ruled at the same time, but in different regions whose exact details are not known very well. For example, Apollodotus I likely ruled areas south of Bactria and the Indian subcontinent while Antimachus I ruled in Bactria.[79] Eucratides II and Heliocles I would have each ruled smaller parts of southern Bactria.
^Some cities were still controlled by Greek kings such asHermaeus Soter (90–70 BC) in what is todayKabul.
^Mentioned in "Hellenism in ancient India", Banerjee, p 140,[full citation needed] to be taken carefully since Orosius is often rather unreliable in his accounts.
^"They are a nation of nomads, moving from place to place with their herds, and their customs are like those of the Xiongnu. They have some 100,000 or 200,000 archer warriors ... The Yuezhi originally lived in the area between theQilian or Heavenly mountains andDunhuang, but after they were defeated by the Xiongnu they moved far away to the west, beyondDayuan, where they attacked and conquered the people ofDaxia (Bactria) and set up the court of their king on the northern bank of the Gui (Oxus) river".[39]
^On the image of the Greek kneeling warrior: "A bronze figurine of a kneeling warrior, not Greek work, but wearing a version of the Greek Phrygian helmet ... From a burial, said to be of the 4th century BC, just north of the Tien Shan range".[57]
^Notice of the British Museum on the Zhou vase (2005, attached image): "Red earthenware bowl, decorated with a slip and inlaid with glass paste. Eastern Zhou period, 4th–3rd century BC. This bowl may have intended to copy a possibly foreign vessel in bronze or even silver. Glass has been both imported from the Near East and produced domestically by the Zhou States since the 5th century BC."
^"The things which China received from the Graeco-Iranian world-the pomegranate and other "Chang-Kien" plants, the heavy equipment of the cataphract, the traces of Greeks influence on Han art (such as) the famous white bronze mirror of the Han period with Graeco-Bactrian designs ... in the Victoria and Albert Museum"[58] Its popularity at the end of the Eastern Zhou period may have been due to foreign influence."[citation needed]
^Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.".Social Science History.3 (3–4): 132.doi:10.2307/1170959.JSTOR1170959.
^Possibly present dayQarshi; Encyclopaedia Metropolitana: Or Universal Dictionary of Knowledge, Volume 23, ed. by Edward Smedley, Hugh James Rose, Henry John Rose, 1923, p. 260: "Eucratidia, named from its ruler, (Strabo, xi. p. 516.) was, according to Ptolemy, 2° North and 1° West of Bactra." As these coordinates are relative to, and close to,Bactra, it is reasonable to disregard the imprecision in Ptolemy's coordinates and accept them without adjustment. If the coordinates for Bactra are taken to be36°45′N66°55′E / 36.750°N 66.917°E /36.750; 66.917, then the coordinates38°45′N65°55′E / 38.750°N 65.917°E /38.750; 65.917 can be seen to be close to the modern day city ofQarshi.
^abc"Justin XLI,6". Archived from the original on 10 November 2019. Retrieved14 January 2006.
^"Justin XXXVI, 1,1". Archived from the original on 20 November 2005. Retrieved11 February 2006.
^McLaughlin, Raoul (2016).The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes : the Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Havertown: Pen and Sword.ISBN978-1-4738-8982-8.OCLC961065049.
^Beckwith 2009, p. 5, footnote 16, as well as pp. 380–383 in appendix B, but also seeHitch 2010, p. 655: "He equates the Tokharians with the Yuezhi, and the Wusun with the Asvins, as if these are established facts, and refers to his arguments in appendix B. But these identifications remain controversial, rather than established, for most scholars."
^Viglas, Katelis (2016)."Chaldean and Neo-Platonic Theology".Philosophia e-Journal of Philosophy and Culture (14):171–189.The name "Chaldeans" refers generally to theChaldean people who lived in the land ofBabylonia, and especially to the Chaldean "magi" of Babylon. ... The "Chaldeans" were the guardians of the sacred science: The astrological knowledge and the divination mixed with religion and magic. They were considered the last representatives of the Babylonian sages. ... In Classical Antiquity, the name "Chaldeans" primarily stood for the priests of the Babylonian temples. In Hellenistic times, the term "Chaldeos" was synonymous with the words "mathematician" and "astrologer". ... TheNeo-Platonists connected theChaldean Oracles with the ancient Chaldeans, obtaining a prestige coming from the East and legitimizing their existence as bearers and successors of an ancient tradition.
^The Muse at Play: Riddles and Wordplay in Greek and Latin Poetry, Jan Kwapisz, David Petrain, Mikolaj Szymanski, Walter de Gruyter, 2013, p.284-287[4]
Boardman, John (1994).The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity. Princeton University Press.ISBN0-691-03680-2.
Boardman, John, Jasper Griffin, and Oswyn Murray (2001).The Oxford Illustrated History of Greece and the Hellenistic World. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-285438-4.
Holt, F. L. (1989).Alexander the Great and Bactria: The Formation of a Greek Frontier in Central Asia: 2nd Edition. Leiden: Brill.ISBN90-04-08612-9.
McEvilley, Thomas (2002).The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies. Allworth Press and the School of Visual Arts.ISBN1-58115-203-5
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_end_4th_cent_BCE-1st_cent_CE_Hellenistic_Port_model.jpg)
![Ionic pillar, cella of the Temple of the Oxus, Takht-i Sangin, late 4th – early 3rd century BCE.[48]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aIonic_pillar%2c_cella_of_the_Temple_of_the_Oxus%2c_Takht-i_Sangin%2c_late_4th_-_early_3rd_century_BCE.jpg)
![Head of a Greco-Bactrian ruler with diadem, Temple of the Oxus, Takht-i Sangin, 3rd–2nd century BCE. This could also be a portrait of Seleucus I.[50]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aHead_of_a_Greco-Bactrian_ruler%2c_Temple_of_the_Oxus%2c_Takht-i-Sangin%2c_3rd-2nd_century_BCE.jpg)
![Hellenistic silenus Marsyas from Takhti Sangin, with dedication in Greek to the god of the Oxus, by "Atrosokes" (a Bactrian name). Temple of the Oxus, Takht-i Sangin, 200–150 BCE. Tajikistan National Museum.[48][51]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAltar_to_God_Oxus%2c_with_Marsias_playing_the_aolos%2c_Temple_of_the_Oxus%2c_Takht-i_Sangin%2c_dated_2nd_century_BCE.jpg)
![Alexander-Heracles head, Takht-i Sangin, Temple of the Oxus, 3rd century BCE.[48]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAlexander-Herakles_head%2c_Takht-i_Sangin%2c_Temple_of_the_Oxus%2c_3rd_century_BCE.jpg)
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