Orthographic map showing the greatest territorial extent of Great Moravia. The areas in light green are territories often claimed to have been, at times, under Moravian rule.
Centered on theMorava River – which gave the realm its name – the core encompassed today’s Moravia in the eastern Czech Republic and adjacent western Slovakia. The kingdom saw the rise of the first-ever Slavic literary culture in theOld Church Slavonic language as well as the expansion ofChristianity, first via missionaries fromEast Francia, and later after the arrival ofSaints Cyril and Methodius in 863 and the creation of theGlagolitic alphabet, the first alphabet dedicated to a Slavic language. Glagolitic was subsequently replaced by theCyrillic alphabet created in theFirst Bulgarian Empire.
Although the borders of this empire cannot be exactly determined, Moravia reached its largest territorial extent under PrinceSvatopluk I (Slovak:Svätopluk), who ruled from 870 to 894. Separatism and internal conflicts emerging after Svatopluk's death contributed to the fall of Great Moravia, which was overrun by theHungarians, who then included the territory of present-day Slovakia in their domains. The exact date of Moravia's collapse is unknown, but it occurred between 902 and 907.
Moravia experienced significant cultural development under KingRastislav, with the arrival in 863 of the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius. After his request for missionaries had been refused in Rome, Rastislav asked theByzantine emperor to send a "teacher" (učiteľ) to introduce literacy and a legal system (pravьda) to Great Moravia. The request was granted. The missionary brothers Cyril and Methodius introduced a system of writing (the Glagolitic alphabet) and Slavonic liturgy, the latter eventually formally approved byPope Adrian II.[5] The Glagolitic script was probably invented by Cyril himself and the language he used for his translations of religious texts and his original literary creation was based on theEastern South Slavic dialect he and his brother Methodius knew from their nativeThessaloniki. Old Church Slavonic, therefore, differed somewhat from the local Slavic dialect of Great Moravia which was the ancestral idiom to the later dialects spoken in Moravia and western Slovakia. Later, the disciples of Cyril and Methodius were expelled from Great Moravia by KingSvatopluk I, who re-orientated the Empire to Western Christianity.
The meaning of the name of Great Moravia has been subject to debate.[6] The designation "Great Moravia"—Megale Moravia (Μεγάλη Μοραβία) inGreek[7]—stems from the workDe Administrando Imperio written by the Byzantine EmperorConstantine VII Porphyrogenitos around 950.[8][9] The emperor only used the adjectivemegale in connection with the polity when referring to events that occurred after its fall, implying that it should rather be translated as "old" instead of "great".[10] According to a third theory, themegale adjective refers to a territory located beyond the borders of the Byzantine Empire.[11][12] Finally, the historian Lubomír E. Havlík writes that Byzantine scholars used this adjective when referring to homelands of nomadic peoples, as demonstrated by the term "Great Bulgaria".[13]
[There] isBelgrade, in which is the tower of theholy and great Constantine, the emperor; then, again, at the running back of the river, is the renownedSirmium by name, a journey of two days from Belgrade; and beyond lies great Moravia, the unbaptized, which the [Hungarians] have blotted out, but over which in former days [Svatopluk] used to rule. Such are the landmarks and names along theDanube river [...].
The work of Porphyrogenitos is the only nearly contemporaneous source using the adjective "great" in connection with Moravia.[13] Other documents from the 9th and 10th centuries never used the term in this context.[15] Instead they mention the polity as "Moravian realm" or "realm of Moravians" (regnum Marahensium,terra Marahensium,regnum Marahavorum,regnum Marauorum,terra Marauorum orregnum Margorum in Latin, andMoravьska oblastь inOld Church Slavonic), simply "Moravia" (Marawa,Marauia, andMaraha in Latin,Morava,Marava, orMurava in Old Church Slavonic, andM.ŕawa.t inArabic),[16] alsoregnum Sclavorum (realm of Slavs) or alternateregnum Rastizi (realm of Rastislav) orregnum Zuentibaldi (realm of Svatopluk).
"Morava" is the Czech and Slovak name for both the river and the country, presumably the river name being primary and giving name to the surrounding country. The ending -ava, as in many other Czech and Slovak rivers, is most often regarded as Slavicization of the originally Germanic -ahwa (= modern German "Au" or "-a"), cognate to Latin aqua. Some scholars again link it, via Celtic -ab, toIndo-European PIE*apa/*opa ("water, sea").[17] The root mor- might be also connected with otherIndo-European words with the meaning of water, lake or sea (sea: Slavic more, Latin mare, Welsh môr, German Meer; humidity: English and German Moor, Slavicmokr-). Compare also other river names like Mur in Austria and anotherMorava in Serbia, etc.).
After the fall of Great Moravia, the central territory of Great Moravia was gradually divided into the newly ascendingKingdom of Bohemia andHungarian Kingdom. The frontier was originally settled on the Morava river. However, from the 12th century, the Czech kings managed to gain more and more of the region on the eastern bank, eventually gaining the whole stretch of the eastern territory from Uherské Hradiště down to Strážnice along the White Carpathians. The original core territory of Great Moravia, nowadays forming the eastern part of Moravia and situated between the White Carpathians and the Chřiby mountains, has retained its non-Czech identity in its designation "Slovácko" which shows common origins with the name of the neighbouring Slovakia—a token of a past shared identity in Great Moravian times. This core region of Great Moravia along the river has retained a unique culture with a rich folklore tradition: the above-mentioned Slovácko stretches, to the south (where the Morava river forms the Czech-Slovak frontier), into two regions—the Podluží region on the Morava's western (Czech) bank and Záhorie on its eastern (Slovak) bank. Záhorie also boasts the only surviving building from Great Moravian times, the chapel atKopčany just across the Morava from the archaeological site ofMikulčice (these two important Great Moravian places are now connected by a bridge). The core of Great Moravia was extended, according to annals, in the early 830s, whenMojmir I of Moravia conquered the neighbouring principality of Nitra (present-day western Slovakia). The former principality of Nitra was used as what is termed in Slovakúdelné kniežatsvo, or the territory given to and ruled by the successor to the throne, traditionally the ruling kъnendzь (Prince)'s sister's son.
A speculative map of lands within Great Moravia
Nevertheless, the extent, and even the very location of Great Moravia (historiographical terms, as its original formal name is unknown) are a subject of debate.[6] Rival theories place its centre south of the Danube (the Morava in Serbia) or on the Great Hungarian Plain.[18] The exact date when the Moravian state was founded is also disputed, but it probably occurred in the early 830s under Prince Mojmír I (r. 820s/830s–846), the first known ruler of the united Moravia. Mojmír and his successor,Rastislav ("Rostislav" in Czech), who ruled from 846 to 870, initially acknowledged thesuzerainty of theCarolingian monarchs, but the Moravian fight for independence caused a series of armed conflicts withEast Francia from the 840s.
According to most historians, the core territories of Moravia were located in the valley of the riverMorava, today in present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia.[19][20] Archaeological findings of large early medieval fortresses and the significant cluster of settlements growing around them suggest that an important centre of power emerged in this region in the 9th century.[8][21] Early sources (Alfred the Great's contemporaneous translation ofOrosius'sHistory of the World, which mentioned Moravia's neighbours, and the description of the travel ofCyril and Methodius from Moravia to Venice through Pannonia in theLife of Cyril) also substantiate the traditional view.[22]
These Maroara have to the west of them the Thyringas and some Behemas and half the Begware, and south them on the other side of the Danube river is the land Carendre extending south as far as the mountains called the Alps. ... To the east of the land Carendre, beyond the uninhabited district, is the land of the Pulgare, and east of that is the land of Greeks. To the east of the land of Maroara is the land of the Vistula, and east of that are those Datia who were formerly Goths.
The borders of Moravia cannot exactly be determined because of the lack of accurate contemporaneous sources.[25][26] For instance, the monks writing theAnnals of Fulda in the 9th century obviously had limited knowledge of the geography of distant regions of Central Europe.[27] Furthermore, Moravian monarchs adopted an expansionist policy in the 830s, thus the borders of their realm often changed.[28]
Moravia reached the peak of its territorial expansion under Svatopluk I (r. 870–894).[29]Lesser Poland,Pannonia and other regions were forced to accept, at least formally and often only for a short period, his suzerainty.[26][30] On the other hand, the existence of the archaeologically attested shared cultural zones between Moravia, Lesser Poland andSilesia do not prove that the northern boundaries of Moravia were located over these territories.[31] According to archaeologist Béla Miklós Szőke, thecomitatus of Mosaburg in Pannonia was never part of Moravia.[32] Neither archaeological finds nor written sources substantiate the traditional view of the permanent annexation of huge territories in his reign.[29] Other scholars warn that it's a mistake to draw the boundaries of core territories because Moravia did not reach that development level.[33]
In 1784, Slovak historianJuraj Sklenár disputed the traditional view on the location of Moravia and placed its core region in the region ofSyrmia, stating that it spread from that location to the north to present-day Slovakia, Moravia and Bohemia.[34] Similarly, in the 1820s, Friedrich Blumenerger placed Great Moravia to the south on the borders of Pannonia and Moesia.[35] Their views remained isolated until the 1970s,[35] when Imre Boba again published a theory that Moravia's core territory must have been located around Sirmium, near the riverGreat Morava.[36][37][38] Péter Püspöki-Nagy proposed the existence of two Moravias: a "Great" Moravia at the southern Morava river in present-day Serbia, and another Moravia on the northern Morava river in present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia.[39] A similar theory was also published by Toru Senga.[40] In the 1990s, the southern thesis was further developed by Charles Bowlus, who wrote that Moravia emerged in the region of the "confluences of theDrava,Sava,Drina,Tisza and southernMorava rivers with theDanube".[41] Bowlus emphasized that the orientation of the Frankish marcher organization was focused on the south-east territories, which also supports Great Moravia's southern position.[6] Martin Eggers suggested the original location of Moravia was centered around modernBanat at the confluence of the rivers Tisza andMureș ('Moriš' in Serbian),[42][43] with further expansions extending to the territories in present-dayCzech Republic andSlovakia.
The earliest possible reference to Slavic tribes living in the valley of the northern Morava river was made by theByzantine historianProcopius.[44] He wrote of a group ofGermanicHeruli who "passed through the territory of all of theSclavenes" while moving towardsDenmark in 512.[45] Archaeological sites have yielded hand-made ceramics,[46] and closely analogous objects in southernPoland and westernUkraine appeared at the confluence of the northern Morava River and theMiddle Danube, dated to around 550.[47]
Large territories in thePannonian Basin were conquered after 568 by the nomadicAvars who had arrived from theEurasian Steppes.[44][48] The Slavs were forced to pay tribute to the Avars and to participate in their raids against theByzantine Empire, theFranks and theLombards.[44] Even though the Avar settlement area stabilized on the Danube river in the early period of the khaganate (southern border of present-day Slovakia), a smaller (southernmost) part came under their direct military control after the fall of Samo's empire.[49][c] In the late period of the khaganate, the Avars had already inclined to a more settled lifestyle and their co-existence with the local Slavs can be already characterized as some kind of cultural symbiosis.[50][51][52][53]
In the 7th and 8th centuries, the development of the local Slavs accelerated. The first Slavic fortified settlements were built in present-day Moravia as early as the last decades of the 7th century.[54] From the end of the 7th century, it is possible to register the rise of a new social elite in Moravia, Slovakia and Bohemia—the warrior horsemen.[55] The social organization of the local Slavs continued to grow during the 8th century, which can be documented by further building and development of fortified settlements. In Moravia, they unambiguously concentrate around the river Morava. In Slovakia, the oldest Slavic fortified settlements are documented for the last decades of the 8th century. They were exclusively in areas which were not under direct Avar influence, but probably not built only as protection against them, because some of them are also found in northern territories (Orava,Spiš). Variation in pottery implies the existence of at least three tribes inhabiting the wider region of the northern Morava river in the early 9th century.[56] Settlement complexes from the period were unearthed, for instance, near modernBratislava,Brno andOlomouc.[56] Fortresses erected at Bratislava,Rajhrad,Staré Město and other places around 800[21] evidence the development of local centres of power in the same regions.[8]
Charlemagne launched a series of military expeditions against the Avars in the last decade of the 8th century which caused the collapse of theAvar Khaganate.[44][57][58] TheRoyal Frankish Annals narrates that Avars who "could not stay in their previous dwelling places on account of the attacks of the Slavs"[59] approached Charlemagne inAachen in 805 and asked to be allowed to settle in the lowlands along the riverRába.[58][60]
Following the collapse of the Avar Khaganate, swords and other elements of Frankish military equipment became popular in territories to the north of the Middle Danube.[21] A new archaeological horizon—the so-called "Blatnica-Mikulčice horizon"—emerged in the valley of the northern Morava river and its wider region in the same period.[61] This horizon of metalwork represents a synthesis of "Late Avar" and Carolingian art.[8] One of its signature items is a sword found in a grave inBlatnica in Slovakia,[21] which is dated to the period between 825 and 850.[62] According to the archaeologistFlorin Curta, the sword was produced by a Frankish artisan from theCarolingian Empire.[21] On the other hand, Ján Dekan writes that it represents how Moravian craftsmen selected "elements from the ornamental content of Carolingian art which suited their aesthetic needs and traditions".[63]
Jewelry from a princely burial site atKolín,c. 850–900 ADSpherical gombiki from the Mikulčice Archaeological Park
Moravia, the firstWestern Slavic polity, arose through the unification of the Slavic tribes settled north of the Danube.[64] However, its formation is scarcely described by contemporaneous sources.[65] The archaeologist Barford writes that the first report of the emerging Moravian state was recorded in 811.[8] In the autumn of this year, according to theRoyal Frankish Annals, Avar rulers and theduces or "leaders of the Slavs who live along the Danube"[66] visited the court of EmperorLouis the Pious (r. 814–840) in Aachen.[67] The earliest certain reference to Moravians orMaravani is dated to 822 when the emperor "received embassies and presents from all the East Slavs, that is,Obodrites,Sorbs,Wilzi,Bohemians, Moravians and Praedenecenti, and from the Avars living inPannonia"[68] at an assembly held atFrankfurt.[30][69][70][71]
The late-9th-century[72]Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum ("The Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians") makes the first reference to a Moravian ruler.[30]Carantanians (ancestors of present-daySlovenians) were the first Slavic people to accept Christianity from the West. They were mostly Christianized by Irish missionaries sent by the Archdiocese of Salzburg, among themModestus, known as the "Apostle of Carantanians". This process was later described in the Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum, which states thatMojmír, "duke of the Moravians", expelled "onePribina" across the Danube.[73][74] Pribina fled to Ratpot who administered theMarch of Pannonia from around 833.[75] Whether Pribina had up to that time been an independent ruler or one of Mojmir's officials is a matter of scholarly discussion. For instance, Urbańczyk writes that Mojmir and Pribina were two of the many Moravian princes in the early 9th century,[76] while according to Havlík,[77] Třeštík[78] and Vlasto,[79] Pribina was Mojmír's lieutenant inNitra. Historians who identify Pribina as the ruler of an autonomous state, thePrincipality of Nitra—for instance, Bartl,[44] Kirschbaum[80] and Urbańczyk[76]—add that "Great Moravia" emerged through the enforced integration of his principality into Moravia under Mojmír.
A map presenting the theory of the co-existence of two principalities (Moravia and Nitra) before the 830s
The 9th-centuryCatalogue of Fortresses and Regions to the North of the Danube—which lists the peoples along the borders of East Francia in a north-to-south order—mentions that the Moravians orMarharii[8][81] had 11 fortresses orcivitates.[82] The document locates theMarhari between the Bohemians and the Bulgars, and also makes mention of theMerehani and their 30 fortresses.[81] According to Havlík, who writes thatConversion is a consolidated version of notes made by several authors in different years, the Moravians are twice mentioned in the text: first asMarhari, and next asMerehani. He says, that the reference to theMarhari and their 11 fortresses was made between 817 and 843, and the note of theMerehani shows the actual state under Svatopluk I.[83] In contrast with Havlík,Steinhübel together withTřeštík and Vlasto identify theMerehani with the inhabitants of the Principality of Nitra.[84][85][86] A third view is presented by Püspöki-Nagy and Senga, who write that the reference to theMerehanii—who obviously inhabited the southern regions of the Great Hungarian Plains to the north of the Danube, but south of the territories dominated by the Bulgars—and their 30 fortresses shows the existence of another Moravia in Central Europe.[81][87][88]
Among the Bohemians are 15 fortresses. The [Marharii] have 11 fortresses. The region of theBulgars is immense. That numerous people has five fortresses, since their great multitude does not require fortresses. The people called [Merehanii] have 30 fortresses.
According to a 13th-century source, theHistory of the Bishops of Passau and the Dukes of Bavaria,[90] Bishop Reginhar of Passau (r. 818–838) baptized "all of the Moravians"[91] in 831.[79][92] There is no other information on the circumstances of this mass conversion.[92] Vlasto[79] writes that Mojmír had by that time been converted to Christianity; according to Petr Sommer and other historians, he was also baptized on this occasion.[92] All the same, theLife of Methodius narrates that Christian missionaries had by the 860s arrived in Moravia "from among theItalians,Greeks andGermans" who taught them "in various ways".[93][94] TheLife of Constantine adds that missionaries from East Francia did not forbid "the offering of sacrifices according to the ancient customs",[95] which shows that pagan rites were continued for decades even after 831.[92]
According to theAnnals of Fulda, around August 15, 846,Louis the German, King of East Francia (r. 843–876) launched a campaign "against the Moravian Slavs, who were planning to defect".[96][97] The exact circumstances of his expedition are unclear. For instance, Vlasto writes that the Frankish monarch took advantage of the internal strife which followed Mojmír's death,[98] while according to Kirschbaum, Mojmír was captured and dethroned during the campaign.[99] However, it is without doubt that Louis the German appointed Mojmír's nephew,Rastislav, as the new duke of Moravia during this campaign.[97]
Rastislav (r. 846–870), who initially accepted the suzerainty of Louis the German, consolidated his position within Moravia[62] and expanded the frontiers of his realm.[8] For instance, according to Kirschbaum, he annexed the region of theSlanské Hills in the eastern parts of present-day Slovakia.[100] Barford even writes that the development of the state mentioned as "Great Moravia" by Constantine Porphyrogenitus commenced in Rastislav's reign.[8]
He turned against East Francia and supported the rebellion ofRadbod, the deposed prefect of theMarch of Pannonia, against Louis the German in 853.[100][101] The Frankish monarch retaliated by invading Moravia in 855.[102] According to theAnnals of Fulda, the Moravians were "defended by strong fortifications",[103] and the Franks withdrew without defeating them,[104][105] though the combats lasted until a peace treaty was worked out in 859.[106] The truce is regarded as a stalemate and shows the growing strength of Rastislav's realm.[107] Conflicts between Moravia and East Francia continued for years.[108] For instance, Rastislav supported Louis the German's son,Carloman, in his rebellion against his father in 861.[109] The first record of a raid by theMagyars in Central Europe seems to have been connected to these events.[110] According to theAnnals of St. Bertin, "enemies called Hungarians"[111] ravaged Louis the German's kingdom in 862, which suggests that they supported Carloman.[110]
Rastislav wanted to weaken influence of Frankish priests in his realm, who served the interests of East Francia.[112] He first sent envoys toPope Nicholas I in 861 and asked him to send missionaries to Moravia who mastered the Slavic language.[108] Having received no answer fromRome, Rastislav turned to theByzantine EmperorMichael III with the same request.[108] By establishing relations withConstantinople, he also desired to counter an anti-Moravian alliance recently concluded between the Franks and Bulgarians.[112] Upon his request, the emperor sent two brothers,Constantine and Michael—the future Saints Cyril and Methodius to Moravia in 863.[100] Constantine'sLife narrates that he developed thefirst Slavic alphabet and translated theGospel intoOld Church Slavonic around that time.[113][114]
Louis the German crossed the Danube and again invaded Moravia in August 864.[108][115] He besieged Rastislav "in a certain city, which in the language of that people is called Dowina",[116] according to theAnnals of Fulda.[115] Although the Franks could not take the fortress, Rastislav agreed to accept Louis the German's suzerainty.[117] However, he continued to support the Frankish monarch's opponents.[118] For instance, Louis the German deprived one Count Werner "of his public offices",[119] because the count was suspected to have conspired with Rastislav against the king.[118]
The Byzantine brothers, Constantine (Cyril) and Methodius, visitedRome in 867.[108] At the end of the year,Pope Hadrian II (r. 867–872) sanctioned their translations of liturgical texts and ordained six of their disciples as priests.[108][120] The pope informed three prominent Slavic rulers—Rastislav, his nephew,Svatopluk andKocel, who administeredLower Pannonia—of his approval of the use of the vernacular in the liturgy in a letter of 869.[121] In 869 Methodius was sent by the pope to Rastislav, Svatopluk and Kocel, butMethodius visited only Kocel, who sent him back to the pope. Hadrian then consecrated Methodius as archbishop with the title of Metropolitan ofSirmium to "the seat ofSaint Andronicus",[122] i.e., the see of Sirmium.[123] At the beginning of the 9th century, manyCarantanians (Alpine Slavs), ancestors of present-daySlovenians, settled in the Lower Pannonian region,[124] also known as the Balaton Principality, which was referred to in Latin sources as Carantanorum regio, or "The Land of the Carantanians". The name Carantanians (Quarantani) was in use until the 13th century. Kocel's decision to support Methodius represented a complete break with his father's pro-Frankish policy.[124] Svatopluk had by that time been administering what had been the Principality of Nitra, under his uncle Rastislav's suzerainty, but contemporaneous documents do not reveal the exact location of Svatopluk's successorial territory.[125] Frankish troops invaded both Rastislav's and Svatopluk's realms in August 869.[108][126] According to theAnnals of Fulda, the Franks destroyed many forts, defeated Moravian troops and seized loot.[126] However, they could not take Rastislav's main fortress and withdrew.[108][126]
[Louis the German] ordered the Bavarians to assist Carloman, who wished to fight against [Svatopluk], the nephew of [Rastislav]. He himself kept the Franks and Alemans with him to fight against [Rastislav]. When it was already time to set out he fell ill, and was compelled to leave the leadership of the army toCharles his youngest son and commend the outcome to God. Charles, when he came with the army with which he had been entrusted to [Rastislav's] huge fortification, quite unlike any built in olden times, with God's help burnt with fire all the walled fortifications of the region, seized and carried off the treasures which had been hidden in the woods or buried in the fields, and killed or put to fight all who came against him. Carloman also laid waste the territory of [Svatopluk], [Rastislav's] nephew, with fire and war. When the whole region had been laid waste the brothers Charles and Carloman came together and congratulated each other on the victories bestowed by heaven.
Svatopluk allied himself with the Franks and helped them seize Rastislav in 870.[128] Carloman annexed Rastislav's realm and appointed two Frankish lords,William andEngelschalk, to administer it.[129] Frankish soldiers arrested Archbishop Methodius on his way from Rome to Moravia at the end of the year.[128][129] Svatopluk, who continued to administer his own realm after his uncle's fall, was accused of treachery and arrested by Carloman on Louis the German's orders in 871.[129][130] The Moravians rose up in open rebellion against the two Frankish governors and elected a kinsman of Svatopluk,Slavomír, duke.[117][129][130] Svatopluk returned to Moravia, took over command of the insurgents, and drove the Franks from Moravia.[117] According to the Czech historianDušan Třeštík, the rebellion of 871 led to the formation of the first Slavic state.[citation needed]
Louis the German sent his armies against Moravia in 872.[131] The imperial troops plundered the countryside, but could not take the "extremely well-fortified stronghold" where Svatopluk took refuge.[131] The Moravian ruler even succeeded in mustering an army which defeated a number of imperial troops, forcing the Franks to withdraw from Moravia.[129][131] Svatopluk soon initiated negotiations with Louis the German, which ended with a peace treaty concluded atForchheim in May 874.[129] According to theAnnals of Fulda, at Forchheim Svatopluk's envoy promised that Svatopluk "would remain faithful" to Louis the German "all the days of his life",[132] and the Moravian ruler was also obliged to pay a yearly tribute to East Francia.[129][133]
In the meantime, Archbishop Methodius, who had been released upon the demand of Pope John VIII (r. 872–882) in 873, returned to Moravia.[130] Methodius'sLife narrates that "Prince Svatopluk and all the Moravians" decided to entrust "to him all the churches and clergy in all the towns"[134] in Moravia upon his arrival.[135] In Moravia, Methodius continued the work of translation started in his brother's life.[136][137] For instance, he translated "all theScriptures in full, saveMaccabees",[134] according to hisLife.[136][137] However, Frankish priests in Moravia opposed the Slavic liturgy and even accused Methodius ofheresy.[citation needed] Although the Holy See never denied Methodius'sorthodoxy, in 880 the Pope appointed his main opponent,Wiching, asbishop of Nitra upon the request of Svatopluk, who himself preferred the Latin rite.[129]
Thepapal bullScire vos volumus of 879 addressed to Svatopluk
A letter written around 900 by ArchbishopTheotmar of Salzburg (r. 873–907) and hissuffragan bishops mentions that the pope sent Wiching to "a newly baptized people" whom Svatopluk "had defeated in war and converted from paganism to Christianity".[138] Other sources also prove that Svatopluk significantly expanded the borders of his realm.[139] For instance, according to theLife of Methodius, Moravia "began to expand much more into all lands and to defeat its enemies successfully"[134] in the period beginning around 874.[130] The same source writes of a "very powerful pagan prince settled on theVistula"[140] in present-dayPoland who persecuted the Christians in his country, but was attacked and seized by Svatopluk.[141]
Upon Methodius's request, in June 880 Pope John issued thebullIndustriae tuae for Svatopluk[129] whom he addressed as "glorious count"(gloriosus comes).[142] In the bull, the pope refers to Svatopluk as "the only son" (unicus fillius) of the Holy See, thus applying a title which had up to that time been only used in papal correspondence with emperors and candidates for imperial rank.[9][130] The pope explicitly granted the protection of the Holy See to the Moravian monarch, his officials and subjects.[130] Furthermore, the bull also confirmed Methodius's position as the head of the church in Moravia with jurisdiction over all clergymen, including the Frankish priests, in Svatopluk's realm[117][130] and Old Church Slavonic was recognized as the fourthliturgical language together withLatin,Greek andHebrew.[143]
The longer version of theAnnals of Salzburg makes mention of a raid by the Magyars and theKabars in East Francia in 881.[144] According toGyula Kristó[145] and other historians,[146] Svatopluk initiated this raid, because his relations with Arnulf—the son of Carloman, King of East Francia (r. 876–881), who administered the March of Pannonia—became tense.[117] Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg clearly accused the Moravians of hiring "a large number of Hungarians" and sending them against East Francia at an unspecified date.[147]
Icon ofSt. Gorazd, a disciple of St. Cyril and Method of Moravian origin, who was the designated successor of archbishop Method
During the "Wilhelminer War"—a civil war between two factions of local noblemen in the March of Pannonia which lasted from 882 and 884—Svatopluk "collected troops from all the Slav lands"[148] and invaded Pannonia.[9][149] According to the Bavarian version of theAnnals of Fulda, the Moravians' invasion "led to Pannonia's being laid waste"[150] to the east of the riverRába.[9][151] However,Regino of Prüm states that it wasArnulf of Carinthia who maintained control over Pannonia in 884.[152] Svatopluk had a meeting with EmperorCharles the Fat (r. 881–888) atTulln an der Donau in Bavaria in 884.[153] At the meeting,"dux" Svatopluk became the emperor's vassal and "swore fidelity to him",[150] promising that he would never attack the emperor's realm.[153]
Archbishop Methodius died on April 6, 885.[139] Led by Bishop Wiching of Nitra, Methodius's opponents took advantage of his death and persuadedPope Stephen V (r. 885–891) to restrict the use of Old Church Slavonic in the liturgy in the bullQuia te zelo.[153][154][155] Bishop Wiching even convinced Svatopluk to expel all Methodius's disciples from Moravia in 886,[94][153] thus marring the promising literary and cultural boom of Central European Slavs—the Slovaks took nearly a thousand years to develop a new literary language of their own.
Pope Stephen addressed theQuia te zelo bull toZventopolco regi Sclavorum ("Svatopluk, King of the Slavs"), suggesting that Svatopluk had by the end of 885 been crowned king.[155][156] Likewise, Frankish annals occasionally referred to Svatopluk as king in connection with events occurring in this period.[155] TheChronicle of the Priest of Dioclea—a late-12th-century source with questionable reliability[157]—narrates that one "Sventopelk" was crowned king "on the field of Dalma" in the presence of a papal legate.[156]
Moravia reached its maximum territorial extent in the last years of Svatopluk's reign.[153] According toRegino of Prüm, King Arnulf of East Francia "gave the command of the Bohemians to King Zwentibald of the Moravian Slavs"[158] in 890.[159] Bartl and other Slovak historians write that Svatopluk "probably" also annexedSilesia andLusatia in the early 890s.[153] According to theAnnals of Fulda, King Arnulf proposed a meeting to Svatopluk in 892, "but the latter in his usual fashion refused to come to the king and betrayed his fidelity and all the things which he had promised before".[160][161] In response, Arnulf invaded Moravia in 892, but could not defeat Svatopluk, although Magyar horsemen also supported the Eastern Frankish monarch.[117][161]
Svatopluk—"a man most prudent among his people and very cunning by nature",[162] according to Regino of Prüm—died in the summer of 894.[153] He was succeeded by his son,Mojmir II,[163][164] but his empire shortly disintegrated, because the tribes subjugated to Svatopluk's rule by force started to get rid of Moravian supremacy.[114] For instance, the Bohemian dukes (based in the Prague region) accepted King Arnulf's suzerainty in June 895, and Mojmír II attempted to restore his supremacy over them without success in the next two years.[153][165][166] On the other hand, he succeeded in restoring the Church organization in Moravia by persuadingPope John IX (r. 898–900) to send his legates to Moravia in 898.[167] The legates in short order installed an archbishop and "three bishops as his suffragans"[168] in Moravia.[169]
Conflicts emerging between Mojmír II and his younger brother,Svatopluk II, gave King Arnulf a pretext to send his troops to Moravia in 898 and 899.[163][166][167] TheAnnals of Fulda writes that the "boy" Svatopluk II was rescued by Bavarian forces "from the dungeon of the city in which he was held with his men"[170] in 899.[171] According to Bartl, who wrote that Svatopluk II had inherited the "Principality of Nitra" from his father, the Bavarians also destroyed the fortress at Nitra on this occasion.[167]
According to most nearly contemporaneous sources, the Hungarians played a prominent role in the fall of Moravia.[172] For instance, Regino of Prüm writes that Svatopluk I's "sons held his kingdom for a short and unhappy time, because the Hungarians utterly destroyed everything in it".[162][172] The Hungarians startedtheir conquest of the Carpathian Basin after their defeat in the westernmost territories of thePontic steppes around 895 by a coalition of the Bulgars and Pechenegs.[173] Only a late source, the 16th-centuryJohannes Aventinus, writes that the Hungarians had by that time controlled wide regions to east of the riversHron and Danube in the Carpathian Basin.[174]
Map of Europe in 900, showing Great Moravia and its neighbors
A letter of Theotmar of Salzburg and his suffragans evidences that around 900 the Moravians and the Bavarians accused each other of having formed alliances, even by taking oaths "by the means of a dog and a wolf and through other abominable and pagan customs",[175] with the Hungarians.[176] According toLiudprand of Cremona, the Hungarians already "claimed for themselves the nation of the Moravians, which King Arnulf had subdued with the aid of their might"[177] at the coronation of Arnulf's son,Louis the Child, in 900.[178] TheAnnals of Grado adds that a large Hungarian army "attacked and invaded" the Moravians in 900.[179] Facing the threat of further Hungarian attacks, Mojmír II concluded a peace treaty with Louis the Child in 901.[166][180]
Due to the lack of documentary evidence, the year in which Moravia ceased to exist cannot be determined with certainty.[181] Róna-Tas[182] writes that the Hungarians occupied Moravia in 902,Victor Spinei[181] says that this happened in 903 or 904, while according to Spiesz, the Moravian state ceased to exist in 907.[163] TheRaffelstetten Customs Regulations, which was issued in the years 903–906,[183] still refers to the "markets of the Moravians", suggesting that Moravia still existed at that time.[172] It is without doubt that no Moravian forces fought in thebattle atBrezalauspurc, where the Hungarians routed a large Bavarian force in 907.[172]
The Moravian land, according to the prophecy of the holy archbishop Methodius, was promptly punished by God for their lawlessness and heresy, for the banishment of the orthodox fathers, and for the torments inflicted on the latter by the heretics with whom they acquiesced. In a few years the Magyars came, a people of Peonia, sacked their land and devastated it. But [Methodius's disciples] were not captured by the Magyars for they fled to the Bulgarians. However, the land remained desolate under the rule of the Magyars.
Written sources from the 9th century contain almost no information on the internal affairs of Moravia.[9] Only two legal texts—theNomocanon and theCourt Law for the People—have been preserved.[9][136] The former is a translation of a collection of Byzantineecclesiastical law; the latter is based on the 8th-century Byzantine law code known asEcloga.[136][137] Both were completed by Methodius shortly before his death in 885.[136]
In addition to the study of early medieval chronicles and charters, archaeological research contributed to the understanding of the Moravian state and society.[185] The Moravian centres at Mikulčice, Pohansko and Staré Město were thoroughly excavated in the 1950s and 1960s.[185] However, as Macháček writes, "the acquired huge amounts of finds and data still have to be properly processed".[185]
Reconstruction of a Great Moravian gatehouse and ramparts in Thunau am Kamp,Austria
The nuclei of the Great Moravian settlement structure were well-defended fortified settlements built by the local Slavs both on elevated positions and lowland areas like marshes and river islands. Most Great Moravian castles were rather largehill forts, fortified by wooden palisades, stone walls and in some cases, moats. The typical Great Moravian ramparts combined an outer drystone wall with an internal timber structure filled with earth.[186]The fortifications usually formed several contiguous enclosures, with the elite buildings concentrated in the centre and crafts in the outer enclosures.[186] Most buildings were made of timber, but ecclesiastical buildings and residential dwellings were made of stone. In many cases, prehistoric fortifications were also integrated. The Great Moravian towns, especially in Moravia, but also in the lowlands of Slovakia, were frequently far from the place where the stone was mined and material was transported dozens of kilometres.[187][d]
The Great Moravian settlements can be divided into four main categories. The most important were localities with central functions likeMikulčice-Valy,Staré Město – Uherské Hradiště andNitra, where several castles and settlements formed a huge fortified (pre-)urban agglomeration. Along with the main centres, the system of fortified settlements included fortified regional administrative hubs, forts whose primary function was defence, and refuge forts which were not inhabited permanently but were used in the case of danger. The largest forts were usually protected by a chain of smaller forts. Smaller forts were also built to protect trade routes and to provide shelter for peasants in case of attack. The existence of noble courts like inDucové and in other places is also documented. Their form was probably inspired byCarolingian estates calledcurtis.[188]
In 9th-century Mikulčice, the central fortified area, orAcropolis, was set on an island in theMorava and surrounded by a stone-faced rampart that enclosed an area of six hectares[189] (extensive extramural settlement of 200 hectares stood unfortified).[190] Although the location of the Great Moravian capital, "Veligrad", has not been identified,Mikulčice with its palace and 12 churches is the most widely accepted candidate.[191][192] An important settlement was a large agglomeration in Pohansko nearBřeclav.Nitra, the centre of the eastern part of the Empire, was ruled autonomously by the heir of the dynasty as anappanage.[193][194] Nitra consisted of several large fortified settlements with various functions and approximately twenty specialized craftsmen's villages, making it a real metropolis of its time. Crafts included a production of luxury goods, such as jewelry and glass. The agglomeration was surrounded by a number of smaller forts.
Bratislava Castle had a stone two-story palace and a spaciousthree-nave basilica, built in the mid-9th century. Excavations of the cemetery situated by the basilica uncovered examples of Great Moravian jewelry, similar in style and quality to that from Mikulčice.[195] The castle's name was first recorded in 907, during the fall of Great Moravia, asBrezalauspurc.[196] This name literally means either "Predslav's Castle" after a son of Svatopluk I who is mentioned in theCividale del Friuli, or "Braslav's Castle" afterBraslav of Pannonia, who was a count appointed by KingArnulf (Arnulf of Carantania) of East Francia.[196][197] The agglomeration of several fortified settlements was unearthed in SlovakBojná, discovering important artifacts related to Christianization of the territory. Numerous castles were built on the hills around the valleys of theVáh and the riverNitra, and also in other areas (e.g.,Detva,Zeplín,Čingov), but were not built in south-eastern Slovakia.[citation needed]
The sturdyDevín Castle, in vicinity of Bratislava, guarded Great Moravia against attacks from the West.[198] Although some authors claim that it was built only later as a stronghold of the Kings of Hungary,[199][200] excavations have unearthed an older Slavic fortified settlement founded in the 8th century.[198] During the Great Moravian period, Devín Castle was a seat of a local lord, whose retainers were buried around a stone Christian church.[198] These two castles were reinforced by smaller fortifications inDevínska Nová Ves,Svätý Jur and elsewhere. Another example is the fortress at Thunau am Kamp nearGars am Kamp, overlooking the riverKamp inLower Austria. The defences here re-utilised banked defences of theBronze Age and were only slightly smaller (fifty acres) than the area of the contemporary Frankish Emperor's capital ofRegensburg.[201]
The number of forts discovered exceeds the number recorded in the sources (11 centres of Moravians and 30 centres of "other Moravians" orMerehanos; opinions differ as to how to interpret the reference toMerehanos). Though the only castles which are mentioned by name in written texts areNitrawa (828; identified withNitra),Dowina (864; sometimes identified withDevín Castle) and perhapsBrezalauspurc (907; sometimes identified withBratislava Castle),[202][203][204][205] some sources claim thatUzhhorod inUkraine (903) was also a Moravian fortress. Devín Castle is sometimes identified with a "fortress of Prince Rastislav" mentioned in theAnnales Fuldenses.[193][206]
Moravia was ruled by monarchs from a "wider kinship"[207] known as theHouse of Mojmir.[208] The throne rarely passed from father to son.[26] Actually, Svatopluk I was the only ruler who was succeeded by his son.[26] Rastislav ascended the throne through the East Frankish monarch's intervention,[26] and Slavomir was elected as duke when the Franks captured Svatopluk in 871.[207] The latter case reveals the strong claim of the Mojmir dynasty to the throne, because Slavomir was an ordained priest at the time of his election.[207] The Moravian monarchs were regularly styled asducis ("dukes"), occasionally asregis ("kings") ormaliks ("kings") in 9th-century documents.[207] Tombs within a church have only been discovered at Mikulčice, implying that royals had an exclusive right to be buried in such a prestigious place.[209]
TheAnnals of Fulda never refers to the Moravian monarchs as rulers of a state, but as heads of a people—dux Maravorum ("duke of the Moravians").[210] Accordingly, Macháček writes that "Great Moravia was not primarily organized on a territorial basis [...], but more likely on the foundation of real or fictitious kinship bonds within the tribal structure".[210] On the other hand, Havlík says that Moravia was divided into counties each headed by "rich, honourable and well-born noblemen" whom he styles aszhupans; he even adds that the number of counties increased from 11 to 30 by the second half of the 9th century.[208] Štefan adds that the existence of scattered groups of farmer warriors, which is suggested by archaeological research, implies the existence of administrative territorial units, because without such a system the monarchs could not organize their campaigns.[211]
Svatopluk incorporated a number of Slavic tribes (including the Bohemians andVistulans) into his empire.[130][117] The subjugated tribes were administered by vassal princes or governors,[130] but they preserved their autonomy, which contributed to the quick disintegration of Svatopluk's Moravia after his death.[117]According to Bartl,[11] Kirschbaum,[117] Štefan,[207] and other historians,[62][212] Great Moravia had two centres. According to Havlík the terms "Moravian lands" (Moravьskskyję strany), "Upper Moravias" (vyšnьnii Moravě,vyšnьneję Moravy) and "Moravian realms" (regna Marahensium,regna Marauorum) which were used in 9th-century documents refer to the dualistic organisation of the Moravian state, consisting of the "Realm of Rastislav" (regnum Rastizi) and the "Realm of Svatopluk" (regnum Zwentibaldi). He and other historians[207] identify the former with modernMoravia in the Czech Republic, and the latter with the Principality of Nitra in present-day Slovakia.[16] However, this view is not universally accepted: Svatopluk's realm has also been identified with the wider region of Staré Město,[125] or with the lands between the Danube and theTisza[213] or east of the Tisza.[214]
The known sources contain records about 65 events related to warfare and Great Moravia.[215] The most detailed are the Frankish sources during Svatopluk's reign.[215] The structure of the Great Moravian army was based mainly on an early feudal conception of military service, performed primarily by the ruling elites.
The core of the Great Moravian army was a princely retinue comprising professional warriors, who were responsible for collecting tribute and punishing wrongdoers (družina).[186] Thedružina consisted of members of the aristocracy ("older retinue") and members of the princely military groups ("younger retinue").[215] Some of its members formed a permanent armed guard for the prince, while the rest were garrisoned at forts or at other strategic points. Thedružina was probably relatively loyal and provided stable support for the prince since there is no known record of any dissatisfaction with it or of any uprising. The permanent part of the army had an expressly cavalry character.[216] The Great Moravian heavy cavalry emulated the contemporary Frankish predecessors ofknights, with the expensive equipment that only the highestsocial strata could afford[217] (a contemporary Arab traveller,Ahmad ibn Fadlan, reported thatSvatopluk I had plenty of cavalry horses[217]). The overall size of thedružina is estimated by Ruttkay at 3,000–5,000 men.[216] In the case of larger mobilisations, cavalry was reinforced by additional smaller units recruited from the retinues of local magnates and from traditional communities (občina). The second element of the army (pohotovosť) consisted of lower classes of free citizens who were not, in most cases, professional warriors. However, thanks to their large numbers and knowledge of the prevalent types of weapons they represented a serious military force. They played a decisive role mainly in the defence of Great Moravian territory; their participation in wars of expansion was less common.[216] The army was led by the prince or, in his absence, by a commander-in-chief called avoivode.[218] The maximum size of the army is estimated at 20,000–30,000 men.[216] In case of external aggression, ordinary people participated in defence and diversion actions. An important element of the defence of Great Moravia was a system of strong fortifications, which were difficult to besiege with the then prevailing forms of military organization. For example, a Frankish chronicler wrote with awe about the size of Rastislav's fortress ("firmissimum, ut feritur, vallum").[189]
The typical weapon of a West Slavic foot soldier was an axe of a specific shape, called abradatica. Spears were universally used by both infantry and cavalry. The weapons associated with a nomadic (Avar) culture, likesabres,reflexion bows and specific types of spears are missing. On the other hand, a military equipment became more influenced by western types and new types of weapons like double-edged swords (rare before the 9th century) became popular. Archers, unlike the previous period, were already a part of the infantry.[219]
The existence of a local aristocracy is well documented: contemporaneous sources refer to "leading men"[220] (optimates orprimates),[221] andnobiles viri orprincipes.[207] However, these documents do not reveal the basis of the Moravian chiefs' power.[207] Richly furnished graves—with the exception of the one at Blatnica, which is "an old and disputable find",[209] according to Štefan—have only been unearthed in Mikulčice and other large fortifications controlled by the monarchs.[222] Štefan writes that the concentration of prestige goods in the towns shows that "immediate contact with the sovereign, who certainly travelled between the centres, was apparently the best winning strategy for the top elite".[209] On the other hand, theoptimates had an important role in the government: the monarchs did not make important decisions without discussing them in a council formed by the Moravian "dukes".[208][210]
Map showing the distribution ofSlavic tribes between the 7th–9th centuries AD
Great Moravia was inhabited by theWest Slavic subgroup of the larger Slavic ethno-linguistical group. The West Slavs have their origin in early Slavic tribes which settled in Central Europe afterEast Germanic tribes had largely left this area during themigration period,[223] while the West Slavs "assimilated the remainingCeltic andGermanic populations" in the area.[224]
Moravians had strong cultural ties to their western neighbors, theFranks, with certain objects provingCarolingian influence. The archaeological evidence demonstrates that the 9th-century material culture found in modern Moravia was very much in the Frankish sphere and showed minorByzantine influence.[225][226][227]
Carolingian influence affected all spheres of life in Great Moravia. After the Carolingian Empire was divided, theOttonian dynasty took over and continued and cultivated Carolingian traditions. It is not accidentalthat the newly created medieval West-Slavonic states borrow from Carolingian tradition via the Ottonian Empire.[228]
The analysis of early medieval cemeteries in Moravia shows that 40 percent of men and 60 percent of women died before reaching the age of 40.[230] More than 40 percent of the graves contained the remains of children aged one to twelve.[230] However, the cemeteries also document rich nutrition and advanced health care.[105] For instance, a third of the examined skeletons had nocaries or lost teeth, andbone fractures healed without dislocation.[105]
The large 9th-century fortresses unearthed at Mikulčice and other places were located in the wider region of the confluence of the rivers Morava and Danube.[231] Two important trade routes crossed this region in this period, the Danube and the ancientAmber Road, implying that these settlements, all lying on rivers, were important centres of commerce.[231] Finds of tools, raw materials and semi-manufactured goods[232] show that quarters inhabited by craftsmen also existed in these settlements.[233] The large fortresses were surrounded by a number of small villages where the locals were engaged in agriculture.[234] They cultivatedwheat,barley,millet and othercereals, and farmed cattle, pigs, sheep and horse.[235] Their animals were relatively small: for instance, their horses were not larger than modernPrzewalski horses.[236]
The existence of a general exchange medium in Moravia has not been proven:[231] there is no sign of local coinage[237] and foreign coins are scarce.[238] According to Bialeková and other archaeologists, the axe-shaped ingots (grivnas) unearthed in great number in fortresses served as "premonetary currencies". This theory has not universally been accepted, because these objects have also been interpreted as "intermediate products intended for further treatment".[239] According to Macháček, the lack of coins meant that Moravian monarchs could not "effectively collect taxes, customs and fines", which weakened their international position.[210]
Iron metallurgy and smithing were the most important branches of local industry.[94] An example of highly developed tool production are asymmetricalplowshares.[94] There is no sign of silver, gold, copper or lead mines in Moravia, but jewellery and weapons were produced locally.[231] Accordingly, their prime material was acquired as loot or gift or brought to Moravia by merchants.[240] Archaeological research also evidences the import of prestige goods, including silk, brocade and glass vessels.[231] According to Štefan[231] and Macháček,[210] the Moravians primarily providedslaves, acquired as prisoners of war during their raids in the neighbouring regions, in exchange for these luxury goods. For instance, Archbishop Thietmar of Salzburg accused the Moravians of "bringing noble men and honest women into slavery"[175] during their campaigns in Pannonia.[231] Slave trading is also well documented: theFirst Legend of Naum narrates that many of Methodius's disciples "were sold for money to the Jews"[241] after 885, and theRaffelstetten Customs Regulations makes mention of slaves delivered from Moravia to the west.[231]
The views on Great Moravian sacral architecture changed dramatically during the second half of the 20th century. At first, researchers assumed it to be limited to simple wooden churches like those known from the German environment in dating from the 7th to 8th centuries.[242] These wooden churches were suitable for initial missionary activities due to the easy availability of materials, quick construction and no need for consecration.[242] This opinion was refined in 1949 after excavations inStaré Město. From the 1960s, stone churches have also been excavated in Slovakia. As of 2014, more than 25 sacral buildings have been safely identified in the core territory of Great Moravia (Moravia and Western Slovakia).[243] The remains of the first uncovered churches were only "negatives" (ditches filled with secondary material after removal of original foundations), but later research also uncovered remains of buildings with original foundations. Especially after the discovery of Great Moravian graves near the church inKopčany, the potential Great Moravian origin of several still-standing churches in Slovakia (viz.,Kopčany,Nitrianska Blatnica,Kostoľany pod Tribečom) was once more an open question. The exact dating is a goal of ongoing research based on radiocarbon analysis anddendrochronology.[244]
Great Moravian sacral architecture is represented by a rich variety of types, from three-nave basilicas (Mikulčice III, Bratislava), triconcha (Devín), simple rotunda without apses (Mikulčice VII), two-apse rotunda (Mikulčice VI), tetraconchic rotunda (Mikulčice IX) and a whole group of one-nave churches and rotundas with one apse. The largest number of churches has been found in south-eastern Moravia. Mikulčice, with twelve churches, clearly dominates among all other localities with the first stone churches built around 800[192] (a potential thirteenth church isKopčany, on the Slovak side of the border). The three-navebasilica from Mikulčice, which has interior dimensions of 35 m by 9 m and a separatebaptistery, is the largest sacral building found to date.[191][206] The high concentration of churches in Mikululčice exceeded the needs of the local population, and so are believed to be proprietary churches (Eigenkirchen), known also in Francia.[244] Large churches were also important ecclesiastical centres. The current dating of several churches precedes the Byzantine mission. The churches were decorated mostly by frescoes, but usage ofsecco is also documented.[245] The authors were probably foreign artists from Francia and northern Italy[245] (the latter indicated by, for example, the chemical composition of paintings in Bratislava and Devín[246]).
Great Moravian sacral architecture was probably influenced by Frankish, Dalmatian-Istrian, Byzantine and classical architecture, which also indicated complex missionary activities. Two open-air museums, in Modrá nearUherské Hradiště and in Ducové, are devoted to Great Moravian architecture.
Stone foundations of a church in Valy u Mikulčic,Czech RepublicExhibition Among the tribes and the state. Room with the Early medieval princely burial from Kolín (Starý Kolín), 850–900 AD
Like other Slavs, the Great Moravian Slavs originally practised a polytheistic religion with an ancestor cult. Several cult places used prior to theChristianization of Moravia have been found in Moravia (Mikulčice andPohansko). However, we do not know what these objects, such as a ring ditch with a fire, a horse sacrifice, or human limbs ritually buried in a cemetery, meant to Great Moravians.[247] An alleged[e] cult object in Mikulčice was reportedly used until the evangelization of the Moravian elite in the mid-9th century and idols in Pohansko were raised on the site of a demolished church during the pagan backlash in the 10th century.[247] The only Slavic pagan shrine found in modern Slovakia is an object inMost pri Bratislave dedicated probably to the god of war and thunderPerun. The shrine was abandoned in the mid-9th century and never restored.[248]
The spread ofChristianity had several stages and it is still an open research question. In older publications, the first organized missions were attributed mainly toHiberno-Scottish missionaries, but modern works are more sceptical about their direct influence.[249] The territory of Great Moravia was originally evangelized by missionaries coming from the Frankish Empire or Byzantine enclaves in Italy andDalmatia from the early 8th century and sporadically earlier.[206][250] Traces of an Aquileia-Dalmatic mission are found in Great Moravian architecture and language.[249] Northern Italian influence is assumed also for golden plaques with Christian motifs fromBojná[251] (probably from a portable altar), which belong to the most important Christian artefacts dated prior to the mission ofSaints Cyril and Methodius. Especially after the defeat of theAvars at the end of the 8th century, Frankish missionaries became the most important part of organized missions. The first Christian church of the Western and Eastern Slavs known from written sources was built in 828 byPribina in Nitra and consecrated by Bishop Adalram ofSalzburg. Most of the territory was Christianized until the mid-9th century.[249] Despite the formal endorsement by the elites, Great Moravian Christianity was described as containing many pagan elements as late as 852.[186]Grave goods, such as food, could be found even in church graveyards.[206] The Church organization in Great Moravia was supervised by the Bavarian clergy until the arrival of the Byzantine missionariesSaints Cyril and Methodius in 863.[252]
In 880, the pope ordained a Swabian monk, Wiching, as bishop of the newly established see of Nitra ("sancta ecclesia Nitriensis").[253] Some experts (e.g., Szőke Béla Miklós) say that the location of the seat of 9th century diocese is different from present-day Nitra.[254]
An example of the Glagolitic script created by Saint Cyril for the mission in Great Moravia (Baščanska ploča fromCroatia). Theinscribed stone slab records Croatian kingZvonimir's donation of a piece of land to aBenedictine abbey in the time of abbot Drzhiha.[255]
The impact of the mission of Cyril and Methodius extended beyond the religious and political spheres.Old Church Slavonic became the fourth liturgical language of the Christian world. However, after Methodius's death (885) all his followers were expelled from Great Moravia; accordingly, the use of Slavic liturgy in Great Moravia lasted only about 22 years.[256] Its late form remains the liturgical language of theUkrainian,Russian,Bulgarian,Macedonian,Serbian andPolish Orthodox Churches. Cyril also invented theGlagolitic alphabet, suitable for Slavic languages, and first translated the Bible into a Slavic language, along with Methodius, who later completed the project.
Methodius wrote the first Slavic legal code, combining localcustomary law with advancedByzantine law. Similarly, the Great Moravian criminal law code was not merely a translation from Latin, but also punished a number of offenses originally tolerated by pre-Christian Slavic mores, yet prohibited by Christianity (mostly related to sexual conduct).[257] Thecanon law was simply adopted from Byzantine sources.
There are not many literary works that can be unambiguously identified as originally written in Great Moravia. One of them isProglas, a cultivated poem in which Cyril defends the Slavic liturgy.Vita Cyrilli (attributed toClement of Ohrid) andVita Methodii (probably written by Methodius's successor Gorazd) are biographies with valuable information about Great Moravia under Rastislav and Svatopluk I.
The brothers also founded an academy, initially led by Methodius, which produced hundreds of Slavic clerics. A well-educated class was essential for administration of all early-feudal states and Great Moravia was no exception.Vita Methodii mentions that the bishop of Nitra served as Svatopluk I's chancellor, and even PrinceKoceľ of theBalaton Principality was said to have mastered the Glagolitic script.[250] The location of the Great Moravian academy has not been identified, but possible sites include Mikulčice (where somestyli have been found in an ecclesiastical building), Devín Castle (with a building identified as a probable school) and Nitra (with its Episcopal basilica and monastery). When Methodius's disciples were expelled from Great Moravia by Svatopluk I in 885, they disseminated their knowledge (including the Glagolitic script) to other Slavic countries, such asBulgaria,Croatia and Bohemia. TheCyrillic script was created in Bulgaria in thePreslav Literary School, which became the standard alphabet the Bulgarian Empire and later in theKievan Rus' (modern day Russia, Ukraine and Belarus). The Great Moravian cultural heritage was further developed in Bulgarian seminaries, paving the way for theChristianization of Kievan Rus'.
In the first half of the 9th century, Great Moravian craftsmen were inspired by contemporary Carolingian art.[206] In the second half of the 9th century, Great Moravian jewelry was influenced by Byzantine, Eastern Mediterranean and Adriatic styles.[206] In the words of Czech archaeologist Josef Poulík, "these new forms and techniques were not copied passively, but were transformed in the local idiom, establishing in this way the roots of the distinctive Great Moravian jewellery style."[206] However, recent research has also shown that Great Moravia was part of different cultural circles in terms of material culture and shared many types of objects with neighbouring regions.[261] The impression that the Moravian craftsmen alone created an influential jewellery style could therefore simply be based on the fact that there are a particularly large number of well-researched graves there.[262] Typical Great Moravian jewelry included silver and golden earrings decorated by fine granular filigree, as well as silver and gilded bronze buttons covered by foliate ornaments.[191]
Great Moravian centres (e.g., Bratislava (Pozsony, Pressburg), Nitra (Nyitra),Tekov (Bars) andZemplín (Zemplén)) retained their functions after the fall of Great Moravia, although the identification of Bratislava, Tekov and Zemplín as Great Moravian castles are not generally accepted.[263][clarification needed] Several sources suggest that Hungarian rulers followed the contemporary German or Bulgar patents when they established the new administrative system in their kingdom, or they introduced a new system.[264]
Social differentiation in Great Moravia reached the state of earlyfeudalism, creating the social basis for development of later medieval states in the region.[265] The question what happened to Great Moravian noble families after 907 is still under debate. On the one hand, recent research indicates that a significant part of the local aristocracy remained more or less undisturbed by the fall of Great Moravia and their descendants became nobles in the newly formed Kingdom of Hungary.[217][218][266] The most prominent example are the powerful families ofHunt andPázmán.[266] On the other hand, bothAnonymous andSimon of Kéza, two chroniclers of the early history of Hungary, recorded that the prominent noble families of the kingdom descended either from leaders of the Magyar tribes or from immigrants, and they did not connect any of them to Great Moravia. For example, the ancestors of the clanHunt-Pázmán (Hont-Pázmány), whose Great Moravian origin has been advanced by Slovak scholars,[266] were reported by Simon of Kéza to have arrived from theDuchy of Swabia in the late 10th century.[267][268][269]
The territories mentioned as"Tercia pars regni" (lit., "one-third part of the Kingdom of Hungary") in the medieval sources are referred to as the "Duchy" in Hungarian scholarly works and as the "Principality of Nitra" in Slovak academic sources. These territories were ruled autonomously by members of theÁrpád dynasty residing in Bihar (todayBiharea inRomania) or inNitra—a practice reminiscent of the Great Moravian appanage system, but also similar to that of some other dynasties in the Early Middle Ages (e.g., theRuriks in theKievan Rus').[270][271] The existence of an autonomous political unit centered around Nitra is often considered by Slovak scholars an example of political continuity from the Great Moravian period.[272]
Great Moravia also became a prominent theme of the Czech and Slovakromantic nationalism of the 19th century.[273] The Byzantine double-cross thought to have been brought by Cyril and Methodius is currently part of thesymbol of Slovakia and theConstitution of Slovakia refers to Great Moravia in its preamble. Interest about that period rose as a result of thenational revival in the 19th century. Great Moravian history has been regarded as a cultural root of several Slavic nations in Central Europe and it was employed in attempts to create a singleCzechoslovak identity in the 20th century.
Although the source cited above and other sources mention that Great Moravia disappeared without trace and that its inhabitants left for the Bulgars, with Croats and Magyars following their victories, archaeological research andtoponyms suggest the continuity of Slavic population in the valleys of the rivers of theInner Western Carpathians.[274][275] Moreover, there are sporadic references to Great Moravia from later years: in 924/925, both Folkuin in hisGesta abb. Lobiensium and Ruotger inArchiepiscopi Coloniensis Vita Brunonis[276] mention Great Moravia. In 942, Magyar warriors captured duringtheir raid in al-Andalus said that Moravia is the northern neighbour of their people. The fate of the northern and western parts of formerCentral Europe in the 10th century is thus largely unclear.
The eastern part of the Great Moravian core territory (present-day Slovakia) fell under domination of the HungarianÁrpád dynasty. The north-west borders of the Principality of Hungary became a mostly uninhabited or sparsely inhabited land. This was the Hungariangyepűelve, and it can be considered as a march that effectively lasted until the mid-13th century.[277] The rest remained under the rule of the local Slavic aristocracy[266] and was gradually[194] integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary in a process finished in the 14th century.[277][278] In 1000 or 1001, all of present-day Slovakia was taken over by Poland underBolesław I, and much of this territory became part of theKingdom of Hungary by 1031.[277][279]
^King, Ruler, in the international context also translated asPrince orDuke.
^On a 9th-century gilt belt extender found in tomb number 240, located in Mikulčice-Valy. The gravure appears clumsy, but it is the only known image of a Great Moravian flag.
^The occurrence of the biritual cemeteries from the middle and late Avar period is limited to the lineDevín-Nitra-Levice-Želovce-Košice-Šebastovce, but no proof of a permanent presence of the Avars was found north of this line (~7200 km2 with 180 known localities). The archaeological research in Slovakia does not suggest that the border of the khaganate sat on the Carpathians.
^Mikulčice 50 km, Staré Město 20 km. The remains of the prestigious building on the castle hill in Nitra contained luxury limestone from Austria.
^The existence of the alleged circular pagan shrine in Mikulčice was questioned in 2012. (Mazuch 2012)
^Lutterer, Ivan; Majtán, Ivan; Šrámek, Rudolf (1982),Zeměpisná jména Československa. Slovník vybraných zeměpisných jmen s výkladem jejich původu a historického vývoje (trans: Geographic Names of Czechoslovakia) (in Czech), Mladá Fronta
^abThe Land Between: A History of Slovenia. Second, revised edition 2nd Edition (Edited by Otto Luthar), Peter Lang GmbH, Frankfurt am Main, 2013.ISBN978-3631628775
^abKristó, Gyula (1993).A Kárpát-medence és a magyarság régmultja (1301-ig)(The ancient history of the Carpathian Basin and the Hungarians - till 1301). Szeged: Szegedi Középkorász Műhely.ISBN978-963-04-2914-6.
^Engel, Pál (1996).Magyarország világi archontológiája (1301-1457) I. Budapest: História - MTA Történettudományi Intézete. p. 300.ISBN978-963-8312-44-0.
^abcDvořáková, Daniela (2007).Kôň a človek v stredoveku: K spolužitiu človeka a koňa v Uhorskom kráľovstve. Budmerice: Rak.
^abcdHavlík, Lubomír E. (1989). "Great Moravia between the Franconians, Byzantium and Rome". In Champion, T. (ed.).Centre and Periphery: Comparative Studies in Archaeology. London, Boston: Routledge. pp. 227–237.
^abSommer, Petr; Dusan Trestik; Josef Zemlicka (2007). "Bohemia and Moravia". In Berend, Nora (ed.).Christianization and the rise of Christian monarchy : Scandinavia, Central Europe and Rus' c. 900-1200. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 214–262.
^Dvornik, Francis (1956).The Slavs: Their Early History and Civilization. Boston: American Academy of Arts and Sciences. p. 179.The Psalter and the Book of Prophets were adapted or "modernized" with special regard to their use in Bulgarian churches and it was in this school that theGlagolitic script was replaced by the so-called Cyrillic writing, which was more akin to the Greek uncial, simplified matters considerably and is still used by the Orthodox Slavs.
^Fügedi, Erik (1986).Ispánok, bárók, kiskirályok(Counts, barons and petty kings). Budapest: Magvető Könyvkiadó. pp. 12, 24.ISBN978-963-14-0582-8.
^Benda, Gyula; Bertényi, Iván; Pótó, János, eds. (2004).Anonymus: A magyarok cselekedetei – Kézai Simon: A magyarok cselekedetei(Anonymous: The Deeds of the Hungarians – Simon of Kéza: The Deeds of Hungarians). Budapest: Osiris. pp. 120–122.ISBN978-963-389-606-8.
^Heller, Mihail (2000).Orosz történelem - Az Orosz Birodalom története(Russian History - A History of the Russian Empire). Budapest: Osiris Kiadó. p. 37.ISBN963-379-243-6.
^Ján, Steinhübel (2004).Nitrianske kniežatstvo: Počiatky stredovekého Slovenska. Budmerice: Rak.ISBN978-80-224-0812-7.
"King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon Version of Orosius" (1852). In Giles, J. A.The Whole Works of King Alfred the Great, with Preliminary Essays Illustrative of the History, Arts, and Manners, of the Ninth Century, Volume 2 (Jubilee Edition, 3 vols). J.F. Smith for the Alfred Committee.
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Primary documents can be found in the following volumes:
Albrecht, Stefan (2003).Geschichte der Großmährenforschung in den tschechischen Ländern und der Slowakei [History of Great Moravia research in the Czech lands and Slovakia]. Praha: Slovanský ústav.
Angi, János (1997). "A nyugati szláv államok [=Western Slavic states]". In Pósán, László; Papp, Imre; Bárány, Attila; Orosz, István; Angi, János (eds.).Európa a korai középkorban["Europe in the Early Middle Ages"]. Multiplex Media - Debrecen University Press. pp. 358–365.ISBN978-963-04-9196-9.
Benda, Kálmán, ed. (1981).Magyarország történeti kronológiája("The Historical Chronology of Hungary"). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.ISBN978-963-05-2661-6.
Berend, Nora; Urbanczyk, Przemyslaw; Wiszewski, Przemyslaw (2013).Central Europe in the High Middle Ages: Bohemia, Hungary and Poland, c.900–c.1300. Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521781565.
Boháčová, Ivana; Profantová, Naďa (2014). "Čechy v době velkomoravské".The Cyril and Methodius Mission and Europe: 1150 Years Since the Arrival of the Thessaloniki Brothers in Great Moravia [Bohemia in the Great Moravian Period] (in Czech). Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic. pp. 149–171.ISBN978-80-86023-51-9. OS LG 2023-08-18.
Botek, Andrej (2014a).Veľkomoravské kostoly na Slovensku [The Great Moravian Churches in Slovakia] (in Slovak). Bratislava: Post Scriptum.ISBN978-80-89567-37-9.
Bowlus, Charles R. (2009). "Nitra: when did it become a part of the Moravian realm? Evidence in the Frankish sources".Early Medieval Europe.17 (3):311–328.doi:10.1111/j.1468-0254.2009.00279.x.S2CID161655879.
Čaplovič, Dušan (1998).Včasnostredoveké osídlenie Slovenska [Early Medieval settlement of Slovakia]. Bratislava: Electronic Academic Press.ISBN978-80-88880-19-6.
Champion, Tim (1995).Centre and Periphery: Comparative Studies in Archaeology. Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-0-203-98515-1.
Dekan, Ján (1981).Moravia Magna: The Great Moravian Empire, Its Art and Time. Control Data Arts.ISBN978-0-89893-084-9.
Drulák, Petr (2012). "Czech geopolitics: struggling for survival". In Guzzini, Stefano (ed.).The Return of Geopolitics in Europe? - Social Mechanisms and Foreign Policy Identity Crises. Cambridge University Press. pp. 77–100.ISBN978-1-107-02734-3.
Eggers, Martin (1995).Das ‚großmährische Reich‘. Realität oder Fiktion? Eine Neuinterpretation der Quellen zur Geschichte des mittleren Donauraumes im 9. Jahrhundert [The 'Great Moravian Empire'. Reality or fiction? A reinterpretation of the sources on the history of the Middle Danube region in the 9th century]. Stuttgart: Anton Hiersemann,ISBN3-7772-9502-7.
Graus, František (1980).Die Nationenbildung der Westslawen im Mittelalter [The nation-building of the Western Slavs in the Middle Ages]. Sigmaringen: Jan Thorbecke,ISBN3-7995-6103-X.
Havlík, Lubomír E. (2013).Kronika o Velké Moravě[=Chronicle of Great Moravia]. Jota.ISBN978-80-85617-04-7.
Havlík, Lubomír E. (1994).Svatopluk Veliký, král Moravanů a Slovanů[Svatopluk the Great, King of the Moravians and Slavs]. Jota.ISBN978-80-85617-19-1.
Havlík, Lubomír E. (2004). "Great Moravia between the Franconians, Byzantium and Rome". In Champion, T. C. (ed.).Centre and Periphery: Comparative Studies in Archaeology. Routledge. pp. 227–237.ISBN978-0-415-12253-5.
Hosszú, Gábor (2012).Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Dr Gábor Hosszú. p. 317.ISBN9789638843746.
Kniezsa, István (2000).Magyarország népei a XI. században. Lucidus Kiadó.ISBN978-963-85954-3-0.
Kristó, Gyula (1988).A vármegyék kialakulása Magyarországon("The formation of counties in Hungary"). Budapest: Magvető Könyvkiadó.ISBN978-963-14-1189-8.
Kristó, Gyula, ed. (1994).Korai Magyar Történeti Lexikon (9-14. század)(Encyclopedia of the Early Hungarian History - 9-14th centuries). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.ISBN978-963-05-6722-0.
Kristó, Gyula (1996a).Magyar honfoglalás - honfoglaló magyarok("The Hungarians' Occupation of their Country - The Hungarians occupying their Country"). Kossuth Könyvkiadó.ISBN978-963-09-3836-5.
Kučera, Matúš (1974).Slovensko po páde Veľkej Moravy, Bratislava: Veda.
McCornick, Michael (2001).Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce, AD 300-900. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-66102-7.
MacLean, Simon (2003).Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century: Charles the Fat and the End of the Carolingian Empire. Cambridge University Press.ISBN9781139440295.
Mahoney, William M. (2011).The History of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. ABC-CLIO.ISBN9780313363054.
Marsina, Richard (1995).Nové pohľady historickej vedy na Slovenské dejiny. 1. Najstaršie obdobie slovenských dejín (do prelomu 9.-10. storočia) (in Slovak). Bratislava: Metodické centrum mesta Bratislavy.ISBN978-80-7164-069-1.
Marsina, Richard (1999). "Najstaršia poloha Veľkej Moravy".Slovensko a európsky juhovýchod: medzikultúrne vztahy a kontexty (zborník k životnému jubileu Tatiany Štefanovicovej) (in Slovak). Bratislava, SLO: Katedra všeobecných dejín a Katedra archeológie FFUK.ISBN978-8096739141.
Marsina, Richard (2000). "Where was Great Moravia". In Kováč, Dušan (ed.).Slovak Contributions to 19th International Congress of Historical Sciences. Bratislava: VEDA, Vydavateľstvo Slovenskej akadémie vied.ISBN978-80-224-0665-9.
Měřínský, Zdeněk (2002).České země od příchodu Slovanů po Velkou Moravu II [The Czech Lands since the arrival of the Slavs to Great Moravia] (in Czech). Prague: Libry.ISBN978-80-7277-105-9.
Obolensky, Dimitri (1994).Byzantium and the Slavs. St. Vladimir's Seminary Press.ISBN978-0-88141-008-2.
Odler, Martin (2012). "Avarské sídliská v strednej Európe: problémová bilancia" [Avar Settlements in Central Europe: the Balance of the Problem]. In Klápště, Jan (ed.).Studia mediaevalia Pragensia 11 (in Slovak). Praha: Univerzita Karlova v Praze – Nakladatelství Karolinum.ISBN978-80-246-2107-4.
Petkov, Kiril (2008).The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. Brill.ISBN978-90-04-16831-2.
Poleski, Jacek (2014). "Contacts between the Great Moravian Empire and the tribes of Lesser Poland – a short episode or common roots?".The Cyril and Methodius Mission and Europe: 1150 Years Since the Arrival of the Thessaloniki Brothers in Great Moravia. Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic. pp. 179–195.ISBN978-80-86023-51-9. OS LG 2023-08-18.
Poulík, Josef (1975).Mikulčice: Sídlo a pevnost knížat velkomoravských, Praha.
Poulík, Josef (1978). "The origins of Christianity in Slavonic countries north of the Middle Danube Basin".World Archaeology.10 (2):158–171.doi:10.1080/00438243.1978.9979728.
Püspöki-Nagy, Péter (1978). "Nagymorávia fekvéséről [=On the location of Great Moravia]".Valóság.XXI (11):60–82.
Reinhart, Johannes (2014). "The Heritage of Great Moravia in South Slavonic Literature".The Cyril and Methodius Mission and Europe: 1150 Years Since the Arrival of the Thessaloniki Brothers in Great Moravia. Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic. pp. 350–357.ISBN978-80-86023-51-9. OS LG 2023-08-18.
Rogers, Clifford, ed. (2010).The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, Volume 3. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-019-5334-03-6.
Róna-Tas, András (1999).Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History. CEU Press.ISBN978-963-9116-48-1.
Ruttkay, Alexander (1997). "O veľkomoravskom vojenstve s osobitným zreteľom na obdobie vlády Svätopluka" [About the Great Moravian Warfare With a Special Attention to the Reign of Svatopluk]. In Marsina, Richard; Ruttkay, Alexander (eds.).Svätopluk 894 - 1994. Nitra.ISBN978-80-88709-34-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Ruttkay, Matej (2002). "Vývoj osídlenia na strednom Dunaji v 6.–12. stor" [Development of settlement around the Middle Danube in the 6th-12th cent.]. In Ruttkay, Alexander; Ruttkay, Matej; Šalkovský, Peter (eds.).Slovensko vo včasnom stredoveku. Nitra: Archeologický ústav Slovenskej akadémie vied.ISBN978-80-88709-60-2.
Sedlák, Vincent (2005). "Onomastika a historiografia". In Fábrová, Karin (ed.).Príspevky k slovenským dejinám. Prešov. pp. 17–28.ISBN978-80-8068-330-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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Spiesz, Anton; Caplovic, Dusan (2006).Illustrated Slovak History: A Struggle for Sovereignty in Central Europe. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers.ISBN978-0-86516-426-0.
Spinei, Victor (2003).The Great Migrations in the East and South East of Europe from the Ninth to the Thirteenth Century. Translated by Dana Badulescu. Romanian Cultural Institute.ISBN978-973-85894-5-2.
Steinhübel, Ján (2011a). "The Duchy of Nitra". In Teich, Mikuláš; Kováč, Dušan; Brown, Martin D. (eds.).Slovakia in History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–29.ISBN978-0-521-80253-6.
Steinhübel, Ján (2011b).Kapitoly z najstarších dejín českých 531–1004[=Chapters from the oldest Czech history 531–1004]. Spolok Slovákov v Poľsku – Towarzystwo Słowakow w Polsce.ISBN978-83-7490-370-7.
Steinhübel, Ján (2016).Nitrianske kniežatstvo. Počiatky stredovekého Slovenska [The Principality of Nitra. The beginnings of medieval Slovakia]. Bratislava: Rak,ISBN978-80-85501-64-3.
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Szőke, Béla Miklós (2007). "New findings of the excavations in Mosaburg/Zalavar (Western Hungary)". In Henning, Joachim (ed.).Post-Roman Towns, Trade and Settlement in Europe and Byzantium: The heirs of the Roman West. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 411–428.ISBN978-3-110-18356-6.
Tóth, Sándor László (1998).Levediától a Kárpát-medencéig("From Levedia to the Carpathian Basin"). Szeged: Szegedi Középkorász Műhely.ISBN978-963-482-175-5.
Třeštík, Dušan (2010).Vznik Velké Moravy. Moravané, Čechové a štřední Evropa v letech 791–871[The Formation of Great Moravia. Moravians, Czechs and Central Europe in the years 791-871]. Nakladatelství lidové noviny.ISBN978-80-7422-049-4.
Ungerman, Šimon (2021).Frühmittelalterliche Ohrringe mit vier Blechbeeren in Nord-, Mittel- und Südosteuropa. Eine Fallstudie zur Entstehung des großmährischen Prachtschmucks [Early medieval earrings with four tin berries in northern, central and south-eastern Europe. A case study on the origins of Great Moravian jewellery] (in German). Brno: Archeologický ústav AV ČR.ISBN978-80-7524-048-4.
Urbańczyk, Przemysław (2005). "Early State Formation in East Central Europe". In Curta, Florin (ed.).East Central & Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages. The University of Michigan Press. pp. 139–151.ISBN978-0-472-11498-6.
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