TheGreat Indian Warpath (GIW)—also known as theGreat Indian War and Trading Path, or theSeneca Trail—was part of the network of trails in easternNorth America developed and used byNative Americans which ran through theGreat Appalachian Valley. The system offootpaths (the Warpath branched off in several places onto alternate routes and over time shifted westward in some regions) extended from what is now upperNew York to deep withinAlabama. Various Native peoples traded and made war along the trails, including theCatawba, numerousAlgonquian tribes, theCherokee, and theIroquois Confederacy. The British traders' name for the route was derived from combining its name among the northeastern Algonquian tribes,Mishimayagat or "Great Trail", with that of theShawnee andDelaware,Athawominee or "Path where they go armed".[citation needed]
The age of the Great Indian Warpath is unknown. Many of the trails were first broken by animals traveling to the salt licks in the region, especially by the herds of buffalo in the Valley of Virginia. These animal trails were later used by Native Americans.[1] The trails were used for commerce, trading and communication between tribes before the land was explored by Europeans. In Virginia during November 1728,William Byrd II commented while passing a branch of the Indian trail what would later be called theGreat Wagon Road in what would eventually beHenry County, Virginia, that "The Indians, who have no way of traveling except on the Hoof, make nothing of going 25 miles a day, and carrying their little Necessities at their backs, and Sometimes a Stout Pack of Skins into the bargain."[2]
While archaeology shows that the Valley of Virginia was inhabited before the arrival of the Europeans, by the 18th century most of the region was abandoned. Only smaller villages and settlements of different tribes occupied the valley, which was used as a hunting ground, a travel route, and a warpath between the two great clusters of Eastern Indians in the 17th and 18th centuries.[3]
In the north, the line of the Seneca Trail formed the boundary of "the frontier" by the time of theFrench and Indian War (1756–63). WhenKing George III issued aproclamation in 1763 forbidding further settlement beyond the mountains and demanding the return of settlers who had already crossed theAlleghenies, a line was designated roughly following the Seneca Trail.
In the south, the GIW began at theGulf of Mexico in theMobile area and proceeded north by northeast, bisecting another trail known as the Upper Creek Path and crossing theTennessee River nearGuntersville. It then followed roughly the same route as the Tennessee upriver until reaching the vicinity of the modernBridgeport. There it crossed the Tennessee once again at the Great Creek Crossing just below the foot of Long Island on the Tennessee, intersecting another path, the Cisca and St. Augustine Trail, which ran from the area ofSt. Augustine, Florida to that ofNashville, Tennessee.
Several miles upriver from Long Island, the GIW passed through theNickajack area, so-called by theCherokee (fromAni-Kusati) because it had once inhabited by theKoasati.[citation needed]
After following the south bank of the Tennessee River, the path proceeded through Running Water Valley to Lookout/Will's Valley, where it met the Cumberland Trail. From present-dayGadsden, Alabama, this trail passed through the latter valley at a point along the Upper Creek Path, on its way to theCumberland Gap, theOhio Valley, and theGreat Lakes region. Having met, both trails crossed the foot ofLookout Mountain; their route was later followed by the improved OldWauhatchie Pike.
Once over the mountain, the path crossed lowerChattanooga Valley to what archaeologists refer to as theCitico site. For several hundred years this was the pre-eminent town in the early period of theMississippian culture inEast Tennessee (until around 1200). Past Citico, the path ran east (later followed by the late Shallowford Road) toMissionary Ridge, where it divided. The main branch headed northeast toward the Shallow Ford (which can still be seen) across the Chickamauga River (SouthChickamauga Creek) and the other branch went directly east (a route now followed by Bird's Mill/Brainerd Road) to cross at another ford at the site of the laterBrainerd Mission and Bird's Mill.
The east bank of that site is whereDragging Canoe and hisChickamauga Cherokee faction established their base after leaving theOverhill Cherokee towns on theLittle Tennessee River. From there, it proceeded north along the modern-day Chickamauga Road until reaching the main route again. Its path was later followed by the improved Chattanooga-Cleveland Pike. From the area of present-dayCleveland, Tennessee, the path has been followed byLee Highway until reaching theLittle Tennessee River.
From Old Chickamauga Town, a third branch of the path passed across Hickory Valley, where it intersected a path from the Cisca and St. Augustine Trail inNorth Georgia to the Tennessee River. This intersected the main route of the path before fording the stream atHarrison, Tennessee, to reach the Middle Mississippian town which archaeologists call the Dallas site. After crossing that valley, the branch from Chickamauga passed east to Parker's Gap through Whiteoak Mountain and turned northeast, eventually rejoining the main route.
In the Overhill Cherokee country, the path ran from the north to the town ofChota on the Little Tennessee. Here, another important trail, the Warriors' Path, continued south to the town ofGreat Tellico (present-dayTellico Plains), following Ball Play Creek and theTellico River. At Great Tellico, the Warrior's Path intersected theTrading Path (later called the "Unicoi Turnpike"), which ran east over the mountains. From Great Tellico, the Warrior's Path followedConasauga Creek to its confluence with theHiwassee River, where the town ofGreat Hiwassee stood.[4]
In Virginia,U.S. Route 11 (parallel toInterstate 81) was built along the GIW route. From theCumberland Gap and Appalachian mountains at the Tennessee border, the fork called the Chesapeake Branch led northeast, passing 3 miles (5 km) west of what is nowBristol, then through the sites of present-dayAbingdon,Glade Spring,Marion,Rural Retreat,Fort Chiswell (another possible westward gap route),Draper,Ingle's or Pepper's ferry,Salem,Roanoke andAmsterdam, then up theShenandoah Valley throughBuchanan,Lexington,Staunton,Harrisonburg,Winchester. From Winchester, most GIW routes briefly enterWest Virginia, then continue northward intoMaryland andPennsylvania.
Various forks led up (or down) rivers fromChesapeake Bay through the coastal plain andPiedmont. One Chesapeake branch cut off at presentEllett, Virginia, went up the North Fork of theRoanoke River, downCatawba Creek toFincastle or Amsterdam. The Richmond fork of the Chesapeake branch led off from Salem, and continued southwest ofLynchburg, and thence northeast to the future site ofRichmond.[5]
Another branch turned south fromBig Lick, near present-day Roanoke, and turned south toward the Catawba country in South Carolina. Later this trading path would be called part of theGreat Wagon Road or theCarolina Road.William Byrd II mentioned it during his survey of the dividing line between North Carolina and Virginia in November 1728. "The Trading Path above mentioned receives its name from being the Route the Traders take with their caravans, when they go to traffick with the Catawbas and other Southern Indians... The Course from Roanoke to the Catawbas is laid down nearest Southwest, and lies through a fine country, that is watered by Several beautiful Rivers.[6]
The Ohio branch led up the Holston Valley to the north fork of theHolston River by what is nowSaltville, Virginia, to theNew River, and thence down the New andKanawha rivers to Indian settlements in Ohio and western Pennsylvania.[5]
Most GIW branches cross West Virginia, although one more eastern route skips the state entirely, followingU.S. Route 15 from Winchester toFrederick, Maryland. The Winchester Pike (now U.S. 11) passes throughBerkeley County, West Virginia (includingMartinsburg) before crossing the Potomac River nearHagerstown, Maryland.
Another more western Seneca Trail branch crossed West Virginia along routes that becameU.S. Route 19,I-79 andU.S. Route 219. Entering a few miles west ofBluefield, what became Route 19 winds through the mountains untilBeckley, then continues toSutton andMorgantown before entering Pennsylvania and continuing to the Great Lakes atErie via I-79.
Route 219 follows theBluestone River to the New andGreenbrier rivers to the vicinity ofWhite Sulphur Springs. It then followsAnthony Creek down to the Greenbrier River near the presentPocahontas –Greenbrier County line, then ascending towardHillsboro andDroop Mountain. It crossed through present Pocahontas County by way ofMarlinton, Indian Draft Run, andEdray. Passing into presentRandolph County, it descended theTygart Valley River from its headwaters and passed through the vicinity of present-dayElkins, after which it proceeded north by ascendingLeading Creek. It left Randolph County after crossingPheasant Mountain, and descended the Left Fork ofClover Run into present-dayTucker County. Crossing theShavers Fork of theCheat River, it exited Tucker county and West Virginia by way ofHorseshoe Run northeast ofSt. George, crossing the Potomac River nearOakland, Maryland.
From crossing the Potomac River atHagerstown, Maryland, the Seneca Trail (U.S. Route 11) continued northward toward theCumberland Valley and modernChambersburg, Pennsylvania.
Since the terrain in Virginia and West Virginia was the most difficult to cross east to west (or vice versa), along the Appalachian mountain range, due to numerous north–south ridges, most hunters (and later settlers) crossed the mountains between the Ohio River watershed and Chesapeake Bay watershed either in Tennessee to the south of that region, or via what was once calledNemacolin's Trail through theCumberland Narrows of Maryland and western Pennsylvania. Named after the Delaware chiefNemacolin, who assisted surveyorThomas Cresap on behalf of theOhio Company of Virginia, it was further improved byWashington and GeneralBraddock. This route connected Cumberland, Maryland by way of theYoughiogheny andAllegheny rivers withBrownsville, Pennsylvania on theOhio River. As the 19th century began, this east–west route became known as the Cumberland orNational Road, later (U.S. Route 40).
Another major Indian route crossed the Potomac nearer what became Washington, D.C., and the falls of the Potomac River, crossing in the Sugarland/Seneca valley area of what becameMontgomery County, Maryland (where historicEdward's Ferry operated andWhite's Ferry still operates), then continued toRockville, Maryland. As European settlement progressed, this route also moved somewhat to the west, so the major crossing became atPoint of Rocks, Maryland orBrunswick, Maryland, then continued toFrederick, Maryland. This route did not cross the Alleghenies, instead following their foothills, especially alongMonocacy River, roughly along the old alignment ofU.S. Route 15 (the Catoctin Highway, nowMaryland Route 28 andMaryland Route 85). One branch continued west toward the Ohio River valley throughEmmitsburg, Maryland and could ultimately connect to Nemacolin's trail further north, even along what becameU.S. Route 30 inGettysburg, Pennsylvania. Another GIW branch continued east along the Potomac River towardWashington, D.C., andAlexandria, Virginia (then settlements of thePiscataway tribe) following what became theChesapeake and Ohio Canal.
Yet another hunting, fighting and trading route from Frederick continued eastward from the GIW toBaltimore, where a connector path closely followed the present-day route ofMaryland Route 10, the Arundel Expressway. It continued south ofMaryland Route 2 towardsAnnapolis near the once-planned extension of MD 10. War parties could then invade theDelmarva Peninsula, and the lands of theAlgonkian speakingLenape of the Delaware River Valley and/or the Piscataway andPowhatan Confederacy of the Chesapeake Bay.
The Great Indian Warpath continued its south–north route through Pennsylvania toward New York along three major paths, pushed westward by development. The easternmost route followed the Appalachian foothills in what became U.S. Route 15 (from thePotomac River atPoint of Rocks throughFrederick, Maryland andGettysburg to theSusquehanna River atCamp Hill, Pennsylvania).
Another route followed Pennsylvania'sCumberland Valley via U.S. Routes 11 and 81 (from thePotomac River atHagerstown, Maryland throughChambersburg,Shippensburg andCarlisle, Pennsylvania). Both these war and hunting routes joined to cross the Susquehanna River nearCamp Hill (now a suburb ofHarrisburg) and jointly followed its tributaries further northward until again splitting near what became theShamokin Dam and laterShikellamy State Park (then a major Indian village nearSunbury). One branch followed theWest Branch Susquehanna River westward along one bank via theGreat Shamokin Path to theAllegheny River or northward along the other bank via theGreat Island Path toLock Haven, Pennsylvania and another major village at the confluence of five major trails. Another branch continued north and eastward along the main branch of the Susquehanna into theWyoming Valley. TheSheshequin Path connected the branches and continued to follow the Appalachians into New York.
The westernmost GIW routes actually crossed the Alleghanies. That which became (Interstate 79) crossed into the Great Lakes watershed atErie, Pennsylvania. This or the Great Shamokin Path may have become the most used after theFrench and Indian War as settlement, theKittanning Expedition of 1756 and theWyoming Valley massacre of 1778 as well as disease pushed the remaining Algonquian-speaking peoples westward.
The northernmost major east–west branch in Pennsylvania connecting to the GIW became the track of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad; a part has recently been converted back to pedestrian use as theSusquehanna Warrior Trail inLuzerne County.
The easiest and most traveled east–west route of the pre- and colonial era became thePhiladelphia and Lancaster Turnpike (first used in 1795), which even later became theMain Line of thePennsylvania Railroad andU.S. Route 30, which meets Route 15 at Gettysburg and Route 11 at Chambersburg.
James Veech described the Catawba Trail inThe Monongahela of Old:[full citation needed]
The most prominent, and perhaps the most ancient of these old pathways across our county, was the old Catawba or Cherokee Trail, leading from the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida, &c., through Virginia and Western Pennsylvania, on to Western New York and Canada. We will trace it within our limits as well as we can. After crossing and uniting with numerous other trails, the principal one enteredFayette territory, at the State line, at the mouth of Grassy run. A tributary trail, called the Warrior Branch, coming from Tennessee, through Kentucky and Southern Ohio, came up Fish creek and downDunkard, crossingCheat river at McFarland's. It run out a junction with the chief trail, intersecting it in William Gans' sugar camp, but it kept on by Crow's mill, James Robinson's, and the old gun factory, and thence toward the mouth ofRedstone, intersecting the old Redstone trail from the top ofLaurel Hill, afterward Burd's road, near Jackson's, or Grace Church, on theNational Road. The main Catawba trail pursued the even tenor of its way, regardless of minor points, which, like a modern grand railroad, it served by branches and turn-outs. After receiving the Warrior Branch junction, it kept on through land late of Charles Griffin, by Long's Mill, Ashcraft's Fort, Phillip Rogers' (now Alfred Stewart's), the Diamond Spring (now William James'); thence nearly on the route of the presentMorgantown road, until it came to the Misses Hadden's; thence across Hellen's fields, passing near the Rev. William Brownfield's mansion, and about five rods west of the old Henry Beeson brick house; thence throughUniontown, over the old Bank house lot, crossing the creek where the bridge now is, back of the Sheriff's house; thence along the northern side of the public grave-yard on the hill, through the eastern edge of John Gallagher's land, about six rods south of John F. Foster's (formerly Samuel Clarke's) house, it crossed Shute's Run where the fording now is, between the two meadows, keeping the high land through Col. Evans' plantation, and passed between William and John Jones' to the site of Pearse's Fort; thence by the Murphy school-house, and bearing about thirty rods westward of the Mount Braddock mansion, it passed a few rods to the east of the old Conrad Strickler house, where it is still visible. Keeping on through land formerly of John Hamilton (now Freeman), it crossed the oldConnellsville road immediately on the summit of the Limestone hill, a few rods west of the old Strickler distillery; thence through the old Lawrence Harrison land (James Blackiston's) to Robinson's falls on Mill Run, and thence down it to theYough river, crossing it just below the run's mouth, whereBraddock's army crossed, at Stewart's Crossings. The trail thence kept through the Narrows, by Rist's, near the Baptist meeting-house, beyond Pennsville, passing by the old Saltwell on Green Lick run, to the mouth of Bushy run, at Tinsman's or Welshouse's mill. Thence it bore acrossWestmoreland county, up theAllegheny, to the heads of theSusquehanna, and into WesternNew York, then the empire of the Iroquois. A branch left the main trail at Robinson's mill, on Mill or Opossum run, which crossed the Yough at the Broad ford, bearing down acrossJacobs creek, Sewickley andTurtle creeks, to the forks of the Ohio, atPittsburgh, by the highland route. This branch, and the northern part within our county [Fayette], of the main route, will be found to possess much interest in connection with Braddock's line of march to his disastrous destiny.
This Cherokee or Catawba Indian trail, including its Warrior branch, is the only one of note which traversed our county northward and southward. Generally, they passed eastward and westward, from the river, to and across the mountains.
The trails northward fromVirginia andPennsylvania converged at the junction of theSusquehanna River and theChemung River; these led to where the Seneca Trail started/ended in western New York near present-dayNiagara Falls, used for centuries by the Seneca of the Iroquois and previous peoples around the Great Lakes. In 1775 the twelve united colonies entered into an agreement concerning the use of Native American paths and the roads:
Brothers: It is necessary, in order for the preservation of friendship between us and brothers of theSix Nations (Iroquois) and their allies, that a free and mutual intercourse be kept between us; therefore we, Brothers: The road is now open for our brethren of the Six Nations and their allies, and they may now pass as safely and freely as the people of the Twelve United Colonies themselves. And we are further determined, by the assistance of God, to keep open and free for the Six Nations and their allies, as long as the earth remains.[7]
The Iroquois Confederacy's central trail had its western terminus at the site of present-dayBuffalo onBuffalo Creek. It crossed to theOnondaga Valley at the foot ofSeneca andCayuga Lakes, met theMohawk River at the"great carrying place" (the site of present-dayRome), then followed the river to site ofSchenectady and had its eastern terminus at the site ofAlbany (in the vicinity ofCastle Island, where the Dutch builtFort Nassau).[8] Modern-dayNew York State Route 5 largely follows this path.
Afterwards, the GIW crossed theHudson River intoNew England, taking theMohawk Trail (largely followed by modern-dayNew York State Route 2,Massachusetts Route 2, andMassachusetts Route 2A). From there, theGreat Trail network eventually went intoNewfoundland, where it reached its northern terminus.