TheGrand Slam intennis is the achievement of winning all four major championships in one discipline in acalendar year. In doubles, a Grand Slam may be achieved as a team or as an individual with different partners. Winning all four major championships consecutively but not within the same calendar year is referred to as a "non-calendar-year Grand Slam", while winning the four majors at any point during the course of a career is known as a "Career Grand Slam".[1][2]
The term Grand Slam is also attributed to theGrand Slam tournaments, referred to asMajors, and they are the world's four most important annual professional tennis tournaments. They offer the most ranking points, prize money, public and media attention, the greatest strength and size of the field and, in recent years, the longest matches for men (best of five sets, best of three for the women). The tournaments are overseen by theInternational Tennis Federation (ITF),[3] rather than the separate men's and women's tour organizing bodies, theAssociation of Tennis Professionals (ATP) andWomen's Tennis Association (WTA), but both the ATP and WTA award ranking points based on players' performances in them.[4]
The four Grand Slam tournaments are theAustralian Open in January, theFrench Open from late May to early June,Wimbledon in late June to early July, and theUS Open in late August to early September, with each played over two weeks. The Australian and the United States tournaments are played onhard courts, the French onclay, and Wimbledon ongrass. Wimbledon is the oldest tournament, founded in 1877, followed by the US in 1881, the French in 1891 (major in 1925), and the Australian in 1905, but it was not until 1925 that all four were held as officially sanctioned majors.[5]
With the growing popularity of tennis, and with the hopes of unifying the sport's rules internationally,[5] theBritish and French tennis associations started discussions at theirDavis Cup tie, and in October 1912 organized a meeting in Paris, joined by theAustralasian, Austrian,Belgian,Spanish, and Swiss associations.[6] They subsequently formed theInternational Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF), holding their first meeting in 1913, joined by the Danish,German,Dutch,Russian, South African, and Swedish organizations.[7] Voting rights were divided based on the perceived importance of the individual countries, with Great Britain'sLawn Tennis Association (LTA) receiving the maximum six votes.[8] Three tournaments were established, being designated as "World Championships":
The LTA was given the perpetual right to organize the World Grass Court Championships, to be held at Wimbledon, and France received permission to stage the World Hard Court Championships until 1916.[10]Anthony Wilding of New Zealand won all three of these World Championships in 1913.[11]
TheUnited States National Lawn Tennis Association (USNLTA) expressed disagreement over the power distribution within the ILTF and the designation of "World Championship" status to the British and French tournaments, and thus initially refused to join the Federation, choosing instead to be bystanders to their meetings.[12][7] By the 1920s, with the World Covered Court Championships failing to attract top players and the growing success of American and Australian tennis, the ILTF worked to convince the USNLTA to join them, meeting their demand to drop the designation of "World Championships" from all three tournaments in March 1923, which led to the demise of both the World Covered Court Championships and the World Hard Court Championships.[9][13] A new category of "Official Championships" was created for the national championships of Britain, France, Australia, and the US.[14][15] By the 1930s, these four tournaments had become well defined as the most prestigious in the sport.[16]
In 1933,Jack Crawford won theAustralian,French, andWimbledon Championships, leaving him just needing to win the last major event of the year, theU.S. Championships, to become the reigning champion of all four major tournaments,[17] a feat described as "a grand slam" by sports columnistAlan J. Gould ofThe Reading Eagle,[18] and later that year byJohn Kieran ofThe New York Times, who stated that if Crawford won atForest Hills it "would be something like scoring a grand slam on the courts, doubled and vulnerable."[19][20] The term 'Grand Slam' originates from the card gamecontract bridge, where it is used for winning all possibletricks. Ingolf it was used for the first time to describe a total of four wins, specificallyBobby Jones' achievement of winning the four major golf tournaments of the era, which he accomplished in 1930.[20] "Grand Slam" or "Slam" has since also become used to refer to the tournaments individually.[4] The first player to win all four majors in a calendar year and thus complete a Grand Slam wasDon Budge in 1938.[21]
At the time, onlyamateur players were allowed to participate in the Grand Slam and other ILTF-sanctioned tournaments.[22] Amateur standing, regulated by the ILTF alongside its associated national federations, forbade players from receiving prize money, earning pay by teaching tennis, being contracted by promoters and playing paid exhibition matches, though expense payments were allowed along with certain monies from sporting goods companies or other benefactors.[22] Amateurs who "defected" to becomeprofessional were banned from competing in amateur tournaments and dropped from their national associations. The first majorprofessional tour was established in 1926 by promoterC. C. Pyle with a troupe of American and French players, most notablySuzanne Lenglen, playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.[22][23] Over the next decades many other head-to-head tours were run and professional tournaments established,[24] with three, theU.S. Pro Tennis Championships,French Pro Championship andWembley Championships, standing out, and considered to have been theprofessional majors.[25] By the 1950s, largely due to efforts of player/promoterJack Kramer, this lucrative parallel circuit was luring in most of the star amateurs on the men's side, much to the ire of the ILTF and organizers of the Grand Slam tournaments.[26] It was an open secret that the top players who remained as amateurs were receiving undeclared under-the-table payments from tournament promoters, an arrangement tolerated by their national tennis associations to dissuade them from joining the pro ranks and secure their availability for the majors and Davis Cup. This system was derisively referred to as 'shamateurism'[27] that was seen as undermining the integrity of the sport.[28]Ramanathan Krishnan andRoy Emerson, for example declined large contract offers from the professional promoters, with the latter stating that he was better paid in the amateur circuit.[29]
Tensions over this status quo, which had been building for decades, finally came to a head in 1967. The first tournament open to professional tennis players played onCentre Court at Wimbledon, theWimbledon Pro, was staged by theAll England Lawn Tennis Club in August,[30] offering a prize fund of US$45,000.[31] The tournament was deemed very successful, with packed crowds and the play seen as being of higher quality than the amateur-only Wimbledon final held two weeks earlier.[32][33] This success in combination with large signings of top players to two new professional tours—World Championship Tennis and theNational Tennis League—convinced the LTA on the need for open tennis.[28] After a British proposal for this at the annual ILTF meeting was voted down, the LTA revolted, and in its own annual meeting in December it voted overwhelmingly to admit players of all statuses to the1968 Wimbledon Championships and other future tournaments in Britain, "come hell or high water".[34] The eventual backing of the USNLTA that came after a February 1968 vote forced the ILTF to yield and allow each nation to determine its own legislation regarding amateur and professional players, which it voted for in a special meeting in March 1968.[35] This marked the start of theOpen Era of tennis,[28] with its first tournament, the1968 British Hard Court Championships, beginning three weeks later on 22 April inBournemouth, England,[36] while the first open Grand Slam tournament, the1968 French Open, was held in May.[28]
Even after the advent of the Open Era, players includingJohn McEnroe andChris Evert have pointed out that skipping the Australian Open was the norm because of the travelling distance involved and the inconvenient dates close to Christmas and New Year.[37][38] There were also the contracted professional players who had to skip some major events like the French Open in the 1970s because they were committed to the more profitable pro circuits.[38][39] In one case, Australian players includingRod Laver,Ken Rosewall andRoy Emerson who had contracts withGeorge MacCall'sNational Tennis League were prevented from participating in the1970 Australian Open because the financial guarantees were deemed insufficient.[40]
Although it has been possible to complete a Grand Slam in most years and most disciplines since 1925, it was not possible from 1940 to 1945 because of interruptions at Wimbledon, the Australian and French Championships due to World War II,[41] the years from 1970 to 1985 when there was no Australian tournament in mixed doubles,[42] 1986 when there was no Australian Open,[42] and 2020 when Wimbledon was cancelled due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.[43]
The Australian Open is the first Grand Slam tournament of the year, played annually in late January and early February.[k][47] The inaugural edition took place in November1905 on the grass courts of theWarehouseman's Cricket Ground inMelbourne, Australia. It was held as the Australasian Championships until 1927 and thereafter as the Australian Championships until the onset of theOpen Era in 1969,[48] passing through various venues in Australia and New Zealand before settling at theKooyong Lawn Tennis Club in Melbourne between 1972 and 1987.[49] Since 1988, it has been played on the hard courts of theMelbourne Park sports complex, which currently usesGreenSet as its court manufacturer.[50]
Managed byTennis Australia, formerly the Lawn Tennis Association of Australia (LTAA), the tournament struggled until the mid-1980s to attract the top international players due to its distance from Europe and America and proximity to theChristmas and holiday season,[51][52] but it has since grown to become one of the biggest sporting events in theSouthern Hemisphere and the highest attended Grand Slam tournament, with more than 1,020,000 people attending the2024 edition.[53]Nicknamed the "Happy Slam"[54] and billed as "the Grand Slam of Asia/Pacific",[55] it has become known for its modernity and innovation, being the first Grand Slam tournament to feature indoor play and install retractable roofs on its main courts,[56] the first to schedule night-time men's singles finals,[57] and the first to substituteelectronic line calling forline judges, using an expanded version of theHawk-Eye technology known as "Hawk-Eye Live".[58]
The tournament was designated a major championship by theInternational Lawn Tennis Federation in 1923.[59] Nowadays, its draws host 256 singles players, 128 doubles teams and 32 mixed doubles teams, with the total prize money for the 2024 tournament beingA$86,500,000.[60]
The French Open, also known as Roland Garros,[61][62] is the second Grand Slam tournament of the year, played annually in late May and early June.[63] A French championships closed event (restricted to members of French clubs)[64] was first held in 1891 on the sand courts of the Societé de Sport de Île de Puteaux, inPuteaux, Île-de-France,[65][l] and changed venues over the years. In 1925 the French championships became open to all amateurs and since 1928 has been held on clay courts at theStade Roland-Garros in Paris, France.[64][67] Both the venue and the tournament are named "Roland Garros" after thepioneering French aviator.[64]
Organized by theFédération française de tennis (FFT), formerly known as theFédération Française de Lawn Tennis until 1976,[68] the French Open is the only Grand Slam tournament played on a red clay surface.[69] It is generally considered to be the most physically demanding tennis tournament in the world.[70][71]
TheWorld Hard Court Championships was considered the premier clay championship in France from 1912–1923 (apart from one year held in Belgium) as it admitted international competitors, and it is therefore often seen as the true precursor to the French Open before 1925.[13][72] The French championships was first held as an International Lawn Tennis Federation–sanctioned major championship in 1925.[73]
Today, it has draws that host 256 singles players, 128 doubles teams and 32 mixed doubles teams, with the total prize money for the 2024 tournament being€53,478,000.[45] The 2018 edition saw a record attendance of 480,575 spectators.[74]
The Wimbledon Championships, commonly known as Wimbledon,[75] is the third Grand Slam tournament of the year, played annually in late June and early July.[76] It was first held in 1877 at theAll England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, at the time located off Nursery Road inWimbledon, London, England.[77] The tournament has always been contested at this club, which moved to its present site off Church Road in 1922 in order to increase its attendance capacity.[78]
Wimbledon is organized by a committee of management consisting of nineteen members, with twelve being club members and the remaining seven nominated by theLawn Tennis Association (LTA).[79][80] As the world's oldest tennis event,[81] it is widely regarded as the most prestigious tennis tournament,[82] and it is known for its commitment to longstanding traditions and guidelines.[83] It is one of few tournaments and the only Grand Slam event that is still played on grass courts,[84] tennis's original surface, and where "lawn tennis"originated in the 1800s.[85] Players are required to wear all-white attire during matches,[86] and they are referred to as "Gentlemen" and "Ladies".[87] There is also a tradition where the players are asked to bow or curtsy towards theRoyal Box upon entering or leaving Centre Court when either thePrince of Wales orthe monarch are present.[88]
The tournament was given the title "World Grass Court Championships" by the International Lawn Tennis Federation between 1912 and 1923,[89] and was designated a major championship following the abolition of the three ILTF World Championships.[59] Since 1937, theBBC has broadcast the tournament on television in the United Kingdom,[90] with the finals shown live and in full on television in the country each year.[91] The BBC's broadcast of the1967 edition was among the firstcolour television broadcasts in the UK.[92]
Today, the event has draws that host 256 singles players, 128 doubles teams and 32 mixed doubles teams, with the total prize money for the 2021 tournament being£35,016,000,[93] and 500,397 people attending the 2019 edition.[94] The tournament has some of the longest running sponsorships in sports history, having been associated withSlazenger since 1902,[95] and with theRobinsons fruit drink brand since 1935.[96]
Organized by theUnited States Tennis Association (USTA),[100] previously known as the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (USNLTA) until 1920,[101] and as United States National Lawn Tennis Association (USLTA) until 1975,[102] it is the only Grand Slam tournament to have been played every year since its inception.[103] In 1997,Arthur Ashe Stadium, thelargest tennis stadium in the world with a capacity of 23,771 spectators,[104][105] was opened.[106] It is named afterArthur Ashe, the winner of the 1968 tournament—the first in whichprofessionals were allowed to compete.[107]
Over the years, the tournament has pioneered changes that other tournaments later adopted, including the introduction of atiebreak system to decide the outcome of sets tied at 6–6 in 1970,[7] being the first Grand Slam tournament to award equal prize money to the men's and women's events in 1975,[7] the installation of floodlights in 1975 in order to allow matches to be played at night,[108] and the introduction ofinstant replay reviews of line calls using theHawk-Eye computer system in 2006.[109]
TheILTF officially designated it as a major tournament in 1923.[9] Today, the event has draws that host 256 singles players, 128 doubles teams and 32 mixed doubles teams, with the total prize money for the 2020 tournament being US$53,400,000,[110] and a US television viewership of 700,000.[111][112] From 2004-2023, the tournament was preceded by theUS Open Series, composed of North American hardcourt professional tournaments that lead up to and culminate with the US Open itself.[113] The season was organized by the USTA as a way to focus more attention on American tennis tournaments by getting more of them on domestic television.[46]
A Grand Slam (sometimes called a Calendar-year Grand Slam, Calendar Grand Slam, or Calendar Slam) is the achievement of winning the Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon, and US Open in the same year.[114][115][116]Margaret Court is the only player to complete a Grand Slam in two disciplines, singles and mixed doubles (twice), while wheelchair playersDiede de Groot andDylan Alcott have completed one in both the singles and doubles disciplines of their respectiveclasses.[1]
The following is a list of players that achieved it.[1]
Each entry show the number of titles won for the respective Grand Slam tournament and overall at the time, each linking to the tournament of that year.
In 1982, theInternational Tennis Federation (ITF) began offering a $1 million bonus to any singles player to win the four majors consecutively regardless the tournaments order of winning them while theMen's International Professional Tennis Council, which was the governing body of men's professional tennis at the time, stated that 'Grand Slam' need not necessarily be won in the same year. This revision by the Council and reportedly the ITF[138] was approved by the representatives of the four Grand Slam tournaments at Wimbledon.[139][140] Neil Amdur and Allison Danzig of the New York Times both criticised the changed definition of the term Grand Slam,[140] whereas in 1985 Hal Bock of Associated Press backed the change.[141] Despite newspaper reports claiming that ITF PresidentPhilippe Chatrier had said "the four big events no longer have to be won in the same calendar year for a player to be recognized as Grand Slam champion",[138] ITF General SecretaryDavid Gray in a 1983 letter claimed that it was never the intention of ITF to alter anything regarding the definition of the classic Grand Slam:[142]
There seems to be some confusion. The ITF's only initiative in this matter has been the organisation of the offer of a bonus of $1 million to any player who holds all four Grand Slam titles simultaneously ... Despite all that we have read on this matter, it has never been my Committee of Management's intention to alter the basis of the classic Grand Slam i.e., the capture of all four titles in a year.
WhenMartina Navratilova won the 1984 French Open and became the reigning champion of all four women's singles discipline, she was the first player to receive the bonus prize in recognition of her achievement. Some media outlets said that she had won a Grand Slam.[143][144] Curry Kirkpatrick ofSports Illustrated wrote "Whether the Slam was Grand or Bland or a commercial sham tainted with an asterisk the size of a tennis ball, Martina Navratilova finally did it."[145]
WhenRafael Nadal was on the verge of completing a non-calendar-year Grand Slam at the2011 Australian Open, one writer observed, "Most traditionalists insist that the 'Grand Slam' should refer only to winning all four titles in a calendar year, although the constitution of the International Tennis Federation, the sports governing body, spells out that 'players who hold all four of these titles at the same time achieve the Grand Slam'."[146] In 2012 the ambiguity was resolved, with the ITF's current constitution stating "The Grand Slam titles are the championships of Australia, France, the United States of America and Wimbledon. Players who hold all four of these titles in one calendar year achieve the 'Grand Slam'."[1]
The following list is for those players who achieved a non-calendar-year Grand Slam by holding the four major titles at the same time but not in the calendar year.[1] Players who completed a Grand Slam within the same streak as a non-calendar-year Grand Slam are not included here.
Only six players have completed a Career Grand Slam in both singles and doubles: one male (Roy Emerson) and five females (Margaret Court, Doris Hart, Shirley Fry Irvin, Martina Navratilova, and Serena Williams).
Number of players to complete the Career Grand Slam
A "Boxed Set" refers to winning one of every possible major title in the singles, doubles, and mixed doubles disciplines throughout a player's career.[153] Only three players have completed a Boxed Set, all females:Doris Hart,Margaret Court, andMartina Navratilova.[154] Court's second Boxed Set, completed in 1969, spans the Amateur and Open Eras, but she later completed a set entirely within the Open Era in 1973.[152]
The event at which the Boxed Set was completed indicated inbold.
The term "Golden Slam" (also known as "Golden Grand Slam",[155][156][157] "Calendar-year Golden Slam"[158] or "Calendar Golden Slam")[159] refers to the achievement of winning all four majors and theOlympic orParalympic gold medal in a calendar year. The achievement was first established in 1988,[160][161] whenSteffi Graf won all the aforementioned titles in singles. She is currently the only singles able-bodied player to achieve it,[162][163] whileDiede de Groot andDylan Alcott also accomplished the feat, in wheelchair singles and wheelchair quad singles respectively.[164][165]
Non-calendar-year Golden Slam: refers to the achievement of winning all four majors and the Olympic or Paralympic gold medal consecutively across two calendar years.[166] It has been used since 2013, whenBob and Mike Bryan won the aforementioned titles consecutively in doubles between 2012 and 2013.[167] Their achievement was also dubbed the "Golden Bryan Slam".[168]
Career Golden Slam: refers to the achievement of winning all four majors and the Olympic or Paralympic gold medal during their career.[169][166]
Number of players to complete the Career Golden Slam
Non-calendar-year Super Slam: refers to the achievement of winning all four majors, the Olympic or Paralympic gold medal, and the year-end championship consecutively across two calendar years.[173]Steffi Graf is currently the only one to achieve it, with her Golden Slam in 1988 following her victory at theyear-end championship in 1987.[173][174]
Career Super Slam: refers to the achievement of winning all four majors, the Olympic or Paralympic gold medal, and the year-end championship throughout a career.[175][176]
Number of players to complete the Career Super Slam
Three-Quarter Slam: refers to the achievement of winning three of the four majors in a calendar year, missing out on the Grand Slam by only one title.[177][178][179]
Number of players to complete the Three-Quarter Slam
Surface Slam: refers to the achievement of winning a major title on each of three current surfaces (clay,grass andhard courts) in a calendar year.[180][181] It's been possible since 1978, when the US Open changed its playing surface from clay to hard courts.[182][183] From 1978 to 1987, the Australian Open and Wimbledon were played on grass, the French Open on clay and the US Open on hard, but since 1988 the Australian Open has also been played on hard courts.[184]
Channel Slam: refers to the achievement of winning both the French Open and Wimbledon in a calendar year.[185] The name makes reference to theEnglish Channel, the body of water separating France from the United Kingdom, the host countries of the French Open and Wimbledon.[185] These tournaments are held clay and grass courts, respectively, surfaces very different from each other,[69] usually being held a few weeks from each other,[185] meaning that players who have deep runs in the French Open have little time to adapt to the different surface conditions found at Wimbledon.[186][187]
Before the start of theOpen Era in 1968, only amateur players were allowed to compete in the four Grand Slam tournaments. Many male top players "went pro" in order to win prize money legally, competing on a professional world tour comprising completelyseparate events.[188] From 1927 to 1967, the three tournaments considered by many to have been the "majors" of the professional tour were:
A player who won all three in a calendar year was considered retrospectively to have achieved a "Professional Grand Slam", or "Pro Slam".[189][190] In the pre-open era the terms did not exist. The feat was accomplished byKen Rosewall in 1963[191] andRod Laver in 1967,[192] whileEllsworth Vines,Hans Nüsslein andDon Budge have won the three major trophies during their careers.[193] The professional majors did not have a women's draw except for the Cleveland tournament in 1953, 1955, 1956, 1959.[194][195][196]
^Gould, Alan (18 July 1933)."Sports Slants: Tennis "Grand Slam"".The Reading Eagle. p. 10.Archived from the original on 27 May 2016. Retrieved2 September 2021.Tennis 'Grand Slam': Crawford, now holder of the Australian, French and British singles title, has the chance for a 'grand slam' by coming over for the United States championships at Forest Hills in September.
^Kieran, John (2 September 1933)."Coming Up to the Net".The New York Times. p. 9.Archived from the original on 2 September 2021. Retrieved2 September 2021.Jack Crawford, the Australian, has the most impressive record so far this year. He defeated Cochet in France for the French hard-court championship. He won at Wimbledon. He holds the Australian title. If he wins at Forest Hills, he will have captured about everything in sight for the year. That would be something like scoring a grand slam on the courts, doubled and vulnerable.
^Henderson, Jon (15 June 2008)."Now I'd choose tennis".The Observer.Archived from the original on 10 July 2017. Retrieved12 March 2022.'Yes, "open" tennis has come at last and Bournemouth has been entrusted with the task of a world shaking launching,' said the programme notes for the 1968 Hard Court Championships of Great Britain, which brought an end to the sport's segregation of amateur and professional players.
^"John McEnroe".Charlie Rose. 2 April 1999. 11:49 minutes in.PBS. Retrieved30 August 2021.I don't think people realize and put in perspective [that] [t]he Australian Open has come a long way. [U]ntil 1985, for example, they were offering me guarantees to play the tournament. You had to beg the top players to play. What changed it was that they did a better promotional job. They put money into a new stadium and things of that nature. ... When people don't realize that Borg played once his entire career. I didn't play the first seven years of my career. Connors only played once. Gerulaitis, God rest his soul, only played a couple of times. There's not a history of the people supporting the event until the late '80s. Now, I give them a lot of credit for bringing the level up as well as the French Open. But I think that people have to put this in perspective.
^Will Kaufman & Heidi Slettedahl Macpherson, ed. (2005). "Tennis".Britain and the Americas. Vol. 1 : Culture, Politics, and History.ABC-CLIO. p. 958.ISBN1-85109-431-8.this first tennis championship, which later evolved into the Wimbledon Tournament ... continues as the world's most prestigious event.
^Shmerler, Cindy (20 August 2018)."What's New, and What's Free, at the 2018 U.S. Open".The New York Times.Archived from the original on 7 September 2021. Retrieved11 September 2021.The new stadium has the tournament's second retractable roof, after one was added over the 23,771-seat Arthur Ashe Stadium in 2016.
^"Ashe & Armstrong Stadiums".United States Tennis Association's official website. 3 May 2005. Archived fromthe original on 16 November 2005. Retrieved30 June 2005.
^Williams, Daniel (11 January 2007)."Australian Open Preview".Time.Archived from the original on 7 September 2021. Retrieved1 March 2021.As seen at last year's U.S. Open and numerous events since, this is the best innovation in tennis since yellow balls.
^"Dubbeltitel US Open voor Van Koot en Griffioen". 9 September 2013. Retrieved27 August 2024 – via pers.nocnsf.nl.For Van Koot and Griffioen, the victory in New York means that they have won all Grand Slam tournaments this year Also at the Australian Open, Roland Garros and Wimbledon, the women's doubles title went to the Dutch pair With that, they have completed the so-called 'Grand Slam'
^"Wheelchair tennis". 8 September 2014. Retrieved27 August 2024 – via paralympic.org.
^"Margaret Court: "Women's tennis is a little bit boring"".BBC.Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved9 March 2024.Margaret Court is one of only three players to have achieved a career "boxed set" of Grand Slam titles, winning every possible Grand Slam title – singles, women's doubles, and mixed doubles – at all four Grand Slam events. The others are Doris Hart and Martina Navratilova – but Court believes she missed opportunities".
^"Graf's feat is a true Grand Slam".Raleigh News and Observer. Sports. 12 September 1988. p. 16.
^"#7: Andre Agassi".Sports Illustrated. Photo Gallery: Top 10 Men's Tennis Players of All Time. 9 July 2012. p. 4.Archived from the original on 10 April 2022. Retrieved21 December 2013.
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Bowers, Chris (2013). Forder-White, Emily (ed.).The International Tennis Federation : a century of contribution to tennis. New York: Rizzoli.ISBN978-0847839902.
Martin, Lorena (2016).Sports Performance Measurement and Analytics: The Science of Assessing Performance, Predicting Future Outcomes, Interpreting Statistical Models, and Evaluating the Market Value of Athletes.FT Press.Pearson Education.ISBN978-0-13-419330-4.
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