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Grand Duchy of Baden Großherzogtum Baden | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1806–1918 | |||||||||
.svg) Flag (1891–1918) | |||||||||
| Anthem: Badnerlied | |||||||||
.svg) The Grand Duchy of Baden within theGerman Empire | |||||||||
.png) Map of the Grand Duchy of Baden (orange) | |||||||||
| Status |
| ||||||||
| Capital | Karlsruhe | ||||||||
| Official language | German | ||||||||
Common languages | Alemannic,South Franconian,Palatinate | ||||||||
| Religion |
| ||||||||
| Government | Constitutional monarchy | ||||||||
| Grand Duke | |||||||||
• 1806–1811 | Charles Frederick(first) | ||||||||
• 1907–1918 | Friedrich II(last) | ||||||||
| Minister-President | |||||||||
• 1809–1810 | Sigismund Reitzenstein(first) | ||||||||
• 1917–1918 | Heinrich Bodman(last) | ||||||||
| Legislature | Landtag | ||||||||
| Erste Kammer | |||||||||
| Zweite Kammer | |||||||||
| Establishment | |||||||||
| History | |||||||||
| 27 April 1803 | |||||||||
• Grand Duchy | 24 October 1806 | ||||||||
| 18 January 1871 | |||||||||
| 14 November 1918 | |||||||||
• Established | 1806 | ||||||||
• Disestablished | 1918 | ||||||||
| Area | |||||||||
• Total | 15,082 km2 (5,823 sq mi) | ||||||||
| Population | |||||||||
• 1803 | 210,000 | ||||||||
• 1905 | 2,009,320 | ||||||||
| Currency |
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TheGrand Duchy of Baden (German:Großherzogtum Baden) was a Germanpolity on the east bank of theRhine. It originally existed as asovereign state from 1806 to 1871 and later as part of theGerman Empire until 1918.[1][2]
The duchy's 12th-century origins were as amargraviate that eventually split into two,Baden-Durlach andBaden-Baden, before being reunified in 1771. The territory grew and assumed its ducal status after the dissolution of theHoly Roman Empire but suffered arevolution in 1848, whose demands had been formulated inOffenburg the previous year at a meeting now considered the first-ever democratic program in Germany.[3] With the collapse of the German Empire it became part of theWeimar Republic under the nameRepublic of Baden.
The Grand Duchy of Baden was bordered to the north by theKingdom of Bavaria and theGrand Duchy of Hesse, to the west by theRhine, to the south bySwitzerland, and to the east mainly by theKingdom of Württemberg. Its unofficial anthem has been theBadnerlied, or Song of the People of Baden, which has four or five traditional verses and many more added: there are collections with up to 591 verses.
Baden came into existence in the 12th century as theMargraviate of Baden and subsequently split into various smaller territories that were unified in 1771. In 1803 Baden was raised toElectoral dignity within theHoly Roman Empire, with ecclesiastical and secular territories added to it during theGerman mediatisation. Upon the dissolution of theHoly Roman Empire in 1806, Baden became the much-enlarged Grand Duchy of Baden. In 1815 it joined theGerman Confederation.
The outbreak of theFrench Revolutionary Wars in 1792 saw Baden joining theFirst Coalition againstFrance. The conflict devastated the margraviate's countryside. Baden was defeated in 1796 with MargraveCharles Frederick being compelled to pay anindemnity and cede his territories on the left bank of the Rhine to France. In 1803, largely owing to the good offices ofTsar Alexander I ofRussia, Charles Frederick received thePrince-Bishopric of Constance, part of theRhenish Palatinate, and other smaller districts, together with the dignity of aprince-elector. Baden then changed sides in 1805 to join France underNapoleon in theWar of the Third Coalition. France and its allies won the war, and in thePeace of Pressburg the same year, Baden obtained theBreisgau and other territories inFurther Austria at the expense of theAustrian Empire. In 1806, Charles Frederick joined theConfederation of the Rhine, declared himself a sovereign prince andgrand duke, and received additional territory.[4]
Baden continued to assist France militarily, and by theTreaty of Schönbrunn in 1809, it was rewarded with accessions of territory at the expense of theKingdom of Württemberg. Having quadrupled the area of Baden, Charles Frederick died in June 1811, and was succeeded by his grandsonCharles, who was married toStéphanie de Beauharnais (1789–1860) a cousin of French empressJosephine's first husband and adopted daughter of Napoleon.[4]
TheNapoleonic Code was adopted in 1810, and remained in force until the adoption of theBürgerliches Gesetzbuch in 1900.[5]
Charles fought for his father-in-law until after theBattle of Leipzig in 1813, when he joined theSixth Coalition.[4]
In 1815 Baden became a member of theGerman Confederation established by the Act of 8 June, annexed to the Final Act of theCongress of Vienna of 9 June. However, in the haste of winding up the Congress, the question of the succession to the grand duchy did not get settled, a matter that would soon become acute.[4]
Thetreaty of 16 April 1816, by which the territorial disputes betweenAustria andBavaria were settled, also supported Bavaria's claim to the Palatine parts of Baden on the east bank of the Rhine and reaffirmed the succession rights of KingMaximilian I Joseph of Bavaria and hisHouse of Palatinate-Birkenfeld to all of Baden, upon the expected event of the extinction of theHouse of Zähringen. As a counter to this, in 1817, the Grand Duke Charles issued apragmatic sanction (Hausgesetz) declaring the counts of Hochberg, the issue of amorganatic marriage between the Grand Duke Charles Frederick andLuise Geyer von Geyersberg (created countess Hochberg), capable of succeeding to the crown. A controversy between Bavaria and Baden ensued, which was only decided in favour of the Hochberg claims by a treaty signed by Baden and the four great powers atFrankfurt on 10 July 1819.[4]
Meanwhile, the dispute had wide-ranging effects. In order to secure popular support for the Hochberg heir, in 1818 Grand Duke Charles granted to the grand duchy, under Article XIII of theAct of Confederation, a liberalconstitution, under which two chambers were constituted and their assent declared necessary forlegislation andtaxation. The outcome was important far beyond the narrow limits of the duchy, as all of Germany watched the constitutional experiments in the southern states.[4]
In Baden, the conditions were not favourable for success. During the revolutionary period, the people had fallen completely under the influence of French ideas, and this was sufficiently illustrated by the temper of the new chambers, which tended to model their activity on the proceedings of theNational Convention (1792–1795) in the earlier days of the French Revolution. Additionally, the new Grand DukeLouis I (ruled 1818–1830), who had succeeded in 1818, was unpopular, and the administration was in the hands of hide-bound and inefficientbureaucrats.[4]
The result was a deadlock. Even before the promulgation of theCarlsbad Decrees in October 1819, the grand duke hadprorogued the chambers after three months of unproductive debate. The reaction that followed was as severe in Baden as elsewhere in Germany, and culminated in 1823 when, on the refusal of the chambers to vote on the military budget, the grand duke dissolved them and levied the taxes on his own authority. In January 1825, owing to official pressure, only three Liberals were returned to the chamber. A law was passed making the budget presentable only every three years, and the constitution ceased to have any active existence.[4]
In 1830 Grand Duke Louis was succeeded by his half-brother Grand DukeLeopold (ruled 1830–1852), the first of the Höchberg line. TheJuly Revolution (1830) in France did not cause any disturbances in Baden, but the new grand duke showed liberal tendencies from the beginning. The elections of 1830 proceeded without interference, and resulted in the return of a Liberal majority. The next few years saw the introduction, under successive ministries, of liberal reforms in the constitution, in criminal and civil law, and in education. In 1832, the adhesion of Baden to thePrussianZollverein did much for the material prosperity of the country.[4]
By 1847,radicalism once more began to raise its head in Baden. On 12 September 1847, a popular demonstration held atOffenburg passed resolutions demanding the conversion of the regular army into a nationalmilitia, which should take an oath to the constitution, as well as aprogressive income tax, and a fair adjustment of the interests ofcapital andlabour.[4]
The news of therevolution of February 1848 in Paris brought agitation to a head. Numerous public meetings were held and the Offenburg programme was adopted. On 4 March 1848, under the influence of popular excitement, the lower chamber accepted this programme almost unanimously. As in other German states, the government bowed to the storm, proclaimed anamnesty and promised reforms. The ministry remodelled itself in a more liberal direction, and sent a new delegate to the federal diet atFrankfurt, empowered to vote for the establishment of aparliament for aunited Germany.[4]
Disorder, fomented by republican agitators, continued nonetheless. The efforts of the government to suppress the agitators with the aid of federal troops led to an armed insurrection, which was mastered without much difficulty. Theuprising, led byFriedrich Hecker,Gustav Struve and others, was lost atKandern on 20 April 1848.Freiburg, which they held, fell on 24 April and, on 27 April, a Franco–Germanlegion, which had invaded Baden fromStrasbourg, was routed at Dossenbach.[4]
In the beginning of 1849, however, the issue of a new constitution in accordance with the resolutions of the Frankfurt parliament, led to more serious trouble. It did little to satisfy the radicals, angered by the refusal of the second chamber to agree to their proposal for the summoning of aconstituent assembly on 10 February, 1849.[4]
The newinsurrection that broke out proved a more formidable affair than the first. A militarymutiny atRastatt on 11 May showed that the army sympathised with the revolution, which was proclaimed two days later at Offenburg amid tumultuous scenes. Also, on 13 May a mutiny atKarlsruhe forced Grand Duke Leopold to flee, and the next day his ministers followed. Meanwhile, a committee of thediet underLorenz Brentano (1813–1891), who represented the more moderate radicals against the republicans, established itself in the capital in an attempt to direct affairs pending the establishment of a provisional government.[4]
This was accomplished on 1 June and, on 10 June, theconstituent diet, consisting entirely of the most "advanced" politicians, assembled. It had little chance of doing more than make speeches. The country remained in the hands of an armed mob of civilians and mutinous soldiers. Meanwhile, the Grand Duke of Baden had joined with Bavaria in requesting the armed intervention of Prussia, whichBerlin granted on the condition that Baden would join theAlliance of the Three Kings.[4]
From this moment, the revolution in Baden was doomed, and with it the revolution across Germany. ThePrussian Army, under Prince William (afterwardsWilliam I, German Emperor), invaded Baden in the middle of June 1849.[4] Afraid of a military escalation, Brentano reacted hesitantly – too hesitantly for the more radicalGustav Struve and his followers, who overthrew him and established a Pole,Ludwig Mieroslawski (1814–1878), in his place.
Mieroslawski reduced the insurgents to some semblance of order. On 20 June, 1849, he met the Prussians atWaghausel, and suffered complete defeat. On 25 June, Prince William entered Karlsruhe and, at the end of the month, the members of the provisional government, who had taken refuge atFreiburg, dispersed. The insurgent leaders who were caught, notably the ex-officers, suffered military execution. The army was dispersed among Prussian garrison towns, and Prussian troops occupied Baden for a time.[4] In the months following, no fewer than 80,000 people left Baden for America.[6] Many of these migrants would later participate in theAmerican Civil War as abolitionists and union soldiers.[7]
Grand Duke Leopold returned on 10 August and at once dissolved the diet. The following elections resulted in a majority favourable to the new ministry, which passed a series of laws of a reactionary tendency with a view to strengthening the government.[4]
Grand Duke Leopold died on 24 April 1852 and was succeeded by his second son,Frederick, as regent, since the eldest,Louis II, Grand Duke of Baden (died 22 January 1858), was incapable of ruling. The internal affairs of Baden during the period that followed have little general interest.
Grand DukeFrederick I (ruled 1856–1907) opposed the war with Prussia from the first, but yielded to popular resentment at the policy of Prussia on theSchleswig-Holstein question. The ministry, as one, resigned. In theAustro-Prussian War of 1866, Austria's contingents, under Prince William, had two sharp engagements with the PrussianArmy of the Main. However, on 24 July 1866, two days before theBattle of Werbach, the second chamber petitioned the grand duke to end the war and enter into an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia.[4]
Baden announced her withdrawal from theGerman Confederation and, on 17 August 1866, signed a treaty of peace and alliance with Prussia.Bismarck himself resisted the adhesion of Baden to theNorth German Confederation. He had no wish to giveNapoleon III a good excuse for intervention, but the opposition of Baden to the formation of a South German confederation made the union inevitable. TheBaden army took a conspicuous share in theFranco-Prussian War of 1870, and it was Grand Duke Frederick of Baden, who, in the historic assembly of the German princes atVersailles, was the first to hail the king of Prussia asGerman Emperor.[4]
The internal politics of Baden, both before and after 1870, centered in the main around the question ofreligion. The signing on 28 June 1859 of aconcordat with theHoly See, which placededucation under the oversight of theclergy and facilitated the establishment ofreligious institutes, led to a constitutional struggle. This struggle ended in 1863 with the victory ofsecular principles, making thecommunes responsible for education, though admitting the priests to a share in the management. The quarrel between secularism andCatholicism, however, did not end. In 1867, on the accession to the premiership of Julius von Jolly (1823–1891), several constitutional changes in a secular direction occurred:responsibility of ministers,freedom of the press, and compulsory education. On 6 September 1867, a law compelled all candidates for the priesthood to pass government examinations.The archbishop of Freiburg resisted, and, on his death in April 1868,the see remained vacant.[4]
In 1869, the introduction ofcivil marriage did not allay the strife, which reached its climax after the proclamation of thedogma ofpapal infallibility in 1870. TheKulturkampf raged in Baden, as in the rest of Germany, and, here as elsewhere, the government encouraged the formation ofOld Catholic communities. Not until 1880, after the fall of the ministry of Jolly, did Baden reconcile with Rome. In 1882 the archbishopric of Freiburg was again filled.[4]
The political tendency of Baden, meanwhile, mirrored that of all Germany. In 1892 theNational Liberals had a majority of just one in the diet. From 1893, they could stay in power only with the aid of the Conservatives and, in 1897, a coalition of the CatholicCentre Party,Socialists,Social Democrats andRadicals (Freisinnige) won a majority for the opposition in the chamber.[4]
Amid all these contests, the statesmanlike moderation of Grand Duke Frederick won him universal esteem. By the treaty under which Baden had become an integral part of theGerman Empire in 1871, he had reserved only the exclusive right to tax beer andspirits. The army, the post office, railways and the conduct of foreign relations passed to the effective control of Prussia.[4]
In his relations with the German Empire, too, Frederick proved himself more of a great German noble than a sovereign prince actuated byparticularist ambitions. His position as husband of the EmperorWilliam I's only daughter,Louise (whom he had married in 1856), gave him a peculiar influence in the councils of Berlin. When, on 20 September 1906, the Grand Duke celebrated at once the jubilee of his reign and his golden wedding anniversary, all Europe honoured him. KingEdward VII appointed him, by the hands of theDuke of Connaught, a Knight of theOrder of the Garter. But more significant, perhaps, was the tribute paid byLe Temps, the leading Parisian paper:[4]
Nothing more clearly demonstrates the sterile paradox of the Napoleonic work than the history of the Grand Duchy. It wasNapoleon, and he alone, who created this whole state in 1803 to reward in the person of the little margrave of Baden a relative of theemperor of Russia. It was he who afterAusterlitz aggrandized the margravate at the expense of Austria; transformed it into a sovereign principality and raised it to a Grand Duchy. It was he too who, by the secularization on the one hand and by the dismemberment ofWürttemberg on the other, gave the Grand Duke 500,000 new subjects. He believed that the recognition of the prince and the artificial ethnical formation of the principality would be pledges of security for France. But in 1813 Baden joined the coalition, and since then that nation created of odds and ends (de bric et de broc) and always handsomely treated by us, had not ceased to take a leading part in the struggles against our country. The Grand Duke Frederick, Grand Duke by the will of Napoleon, has done France all the harm he could. But French opinion itself renders justice to the probity of his character and to the ardour of his patriotism, and nobody will feel surprise at the homage with which Germany feels bound to surround his old age.[4]
Grand Duke Frederick I died atMainau on 28 September 1907. He was succeeded by his son, Grand DukeFrederick II[4] (ruled 1907–1918, died 1928). His wife,Princess Hilda of Nassau, was popular due her supports of artistic endeavors and treatment of the wounded soldiers duringWorld War I.[8]
22,000 industrial workers inMannheim went on strike in January 1918.[9] Members of the garrisons of Lahr and Offenburg formed a soldiers' council on 8 November 1918.Wilhelm Engelbert Oeftering stated that a member of Replacement Battalion 171 who returned fromKiel initiated the demonstration. Another soldiers' council was formed in Mannheim on 9 November.[10]
The NLP, Centre, andProgressive (FVP) parties requested PresidentHeinrich Bodman's resignation on 9 November, due to fears that violence would break out in Mannheim. KaiserWilhelm II abdicated the same day while the mayors ofMannheim andKarlsruhe formed Welfare Committees. The Karlsruhe Welfare Committee andSoviets formed a provisional government, with Bodman's recognition, on 10 November. Five SPD members, twoIndependent Social Democrats, two Centrists, and two National Liberals made up the government.Anton Geiss, the chair of the SPD in Baden and vice-president of the Landtag, chaired the provisional government.[11][12][13]
From 10 to 14 November, soldiers' councils called for the government to declare a republic and remove Frederick II. Frederick II called this government unconstitutional, but did not contest it and dismissed his ministers. He renounced his governmental powers on 13 November, and abdicated on 22 November, ending 600 years of rule by theHouse of Zähringen. He was one of the last German monarchs to abdicate.[14][11] TheFree People's Republic of Baden was formed on 14 November, and elections scheduled on 5 January 1919.[15]
AfterWorld War II the French military government created theState of Baden, at first called South Baden, out of the southern half of the former duchy, withFreiburg as its capital; this area was declared in its 1947 constitution to be the true successor of the duchy. The northern half was combined with northernWürttemberg, becoming part of theAmerican-occupied zone and forming the state ofWürttemberg-Baden. Both Baden and Württemberg-Baden became states ofWest Germany upon the latter's formation in 1949, but in 1952 they merged with each other and withWürttemberg-Hohenzollern, which was southern Württemberg and a formerPrussian exclave, to formBaden-Württemberg – still the only merger of states to have taken place in the history of theFederal Republic of Germany.
A constitution was adopted on 22 August 1814, and existed with some changes until the end of the duchy.[16] The Grand Duchy of Baden was a hereditarymonarchy with executive power vested in the Grand Duke; legislative authority was shared between him and arepresentative assembly (Landtag) consisting of two chambers.[4]
The upper chamber included all the princes of the ruling family of full age, the heads of all the mediatized families, theArchbishop of Freiburg, the president of theProtestant Evangelical Church of Baden, a deputy from each of the universities and the technical high school, eight members elected by the territorial nobility for four years, three representatives elected by thechamber of commerce, two by that of agriculture, one by the trades, two mayors of municipalities, and eight members (two of them legal functionaries) nominated by the Grand Duke.[4]
The lower chamber consisted of 73 popular representatives, of whom 24 were elected by the burgesses of certain communities, and 49 by rural communities. Every citizen of 25 years of age, who had not been convicted and was not apauper, had a vote. The elections were, however, indirect. The citizens selected theWahlmänner (deputyelectors), the latter selecting the representatives. The chambers met at least every two years. The lower chambers were elected for four years, half the members retiring every two years.[4]
The executive consisted of four departments: the interior, foreign and grand-ducal affairs; finance; justice; and ecclesiastical affairs and education.[4]
The chief sources of revenue were direct and indirecttaxes, therailways and domains. The railways were operated by the state, and formed the only source of major public debt, about 22 million pounds sterling.[4]
The supreme courts lay inKarlsruhe,Freiburg,Offenburg,Heidelberg,Mosbach,Waldshut,Konstanz, andMannheim, from which appeals passed to theReichsgericht (the supreme tribunal) inLeipzig.[4]
At the beginning of the 19th century, Baden was amargraviate, with an area of barely 1,300 sq mi (3,400 km2) and a population of 210,000. Subsequently, the grand duchy acquired more territory so that, by 1905, it had 5,823 sq mi (15,082 km2)[17] and a population of 2,010,728.[17] Of that number, 61% wereRoman Catholics, 37%Protestants, 1.5%Jews, and the remainder of other religions. At that time, about half of the population was rural, living in communities of less than 2,000; the density of the rest was about 330/sq mi (130/km2).[4]
The country was divided into the following districts:[4]
The capital of the duchy was Karlsruhe, and important towns other than those listed includedRastatt,Baden-Baden,Bruchsal,Lahr andOffenburg. The population was most thickly clustered in the north and near the Swiss city ofBasel. The inhabitants of Baden are of various origins, those to the south ofMurg being descended from theAlemanni and those to the north from theFranks, while theSwabian Plateau derives its name from the adjacent German tribe (Schwaben),[4] who lived inWürttemberg.
The grand duchy had an area of 15,081 km2 (5,823 sq mi)[17] and consisted of a considerable portion of the eastern half of the fertile valley of theRhine and of the mountains which form its boundary.[4]
The mountainous part was by far the most extensive, forming nearly 80% of the whole area. FromLake Constance in the south to the riverNeckar in the north is a portion of theBlack Forest (German:Schwarzwald), which is divided by the valley of theKinzig into two districts of different elevation. To the south of the Kinzig the mean height is 945 m (3,100 ft)), and the highest summit, theFeldberg, reaches about 1,493 m (4,898 ft), while to the north the mean height is only 640 metres (2,100 ft), and theHornisgrinde, the culminating point of the whole, does not exceed 1,164 metres (3,819 ft). To the north of the Neckar is theOdenwald Range, with a mean of 439 metres (1,440 ft), and in theKatzenbuckel, an extreme of 603 metres (1,978 ft). Lying between the Rhine and theDreisam is theKaiserstuhl, an independentvolcanic group, nearly 16 km in length and 8 km in breadth, the highest point of which is 536 metres (1,759 ft).[4]
The greater part of Baden belongs to the basin of the Rhine, which receives upwards of twenty tributaries from the highlands; the north-eastern portion of the territory is also watered by theMain and the Neckar. A part, however, of the eastern slope of the Black Forest belongs to the basin of theDanube, which there takes its rise in a number of mountain streams. Among the numerous lakes which belonged to the duchy are theMummelsee,Wildersee,Eichenersee andSchluchsee, but none of them is of any significant size.Lake Constance (Bodensee) belongs partly to theGerman federal states (Länder) of Baden-Württemberg and Bavaria, and partly toAustria andSwitzerland.[4]
Owing to its physical configuration, Baden presents great extremes of heat and cold. The Rhine valley is the warmest district in Germany, but the higher elevations of the Black Forest record the greatest degrees of cold experienced in the south. The mean temperature of the Rhine valley is approximately 10 °C (50 °F) and that of the hightable-land 6 °C (43 °F). July is the hottest month and January the coldest.[4]
Themineral wealth of Baden was not great, butiron,coal,lead andzinc of excellent quality were produced;silver,copper,gold,cobalt,vitriol andsulfur were obtained in small quantities.Peat was found in abundance, as well asgypsum, chinaclay,potter's earth andsalt. Themineral springs of Baden are still very numerous and have acquired great celebrity, those ofBaden-Baden,Badenweiler,Antogast,Griesbach,Friersbach andPeterthal being the most frequented.[4]
In the valleys the soil is particularly fertile, yielding luxuriant crops of wheat, maize, barley,spelt,rye,beans,potatoes,flax,hemp,hops,beetroot and tobacco; and even in the more mountainous part,rye, wheat andoats are extensively cultivated. There is a considerable extent of pasture-land, and the rearing of cattle, sheep, pigs andgoats is extensively practised. Ofgame,deer,boar,snipe and wildpartridges are fairly abundant, while the mountain streams yieldtrout of excellent quality. Viticulture is increasing, and thewines continue to sell well. TheBaden wine region is Germany's third largest in terms of vineyard surface. Thegardens and theorchards supply an abundance of fruit, especiallysweet cherries,plums,apples andwalnuts, andbee-keeping is practised throughout the country. A greater proportion of Baden than any other south German state is occupied by forests. In these, the predominant trees areEuropean beech andsilver fir, but many others, such assweet chestnut,Scots pine,Norway spruce and the exoticcoast Douglas-fir, are well represented. A third, at least, of the annualtimber production is exported.[4]
Until 1871, the Grand Duchy maintained theBaden Army for defence.
Around 1910, 56.8% of the region's land mass was cultivated and 38% wasforested. Before 1870, theagricultural sector was responsible for the bulk of the grand duchy's wealth, but this was superseded by industrial production. The chief products weremachinery,woollen andcotton goods,silk ribbons,paper,tobacco,china,leather,glass,clocks,jewellery, andchemicals.Beet sugar was also manufactured on a large scale, as were woodenornaments andtoys,music boxes andorgans.[4]
Theexports of Baden consisted mostly of the above goods and were considerable, but the bulk of its trade consisted of transit. The grand duchy had manyrailways and roads,[4] as well as theRhine for transporting goods by ship. Railways were run by the state as theGrand Duchy of Baden State Railway (Großherzoglich Badische Staatseisenbahnen). A rail-line ran mostly parallel with the Rhine, with oblique branches from East to West.
Mannheim was the great market centre for exports down the Rhine and had substantial river traffic. It was also the chief manufacturing town for the duchy and an important administrative centre for its northern region.[4]
There were numerous educational institutions in Baden. There were three universities, oneProtestant inHeidelberg, oneRoman Catholic inFreiburg im Breisgau, and a research university inKarlsruhe.
The grand-duke was a Protestant; under him, theEvangelical Church was governed by a nominated council and asynod consisting of a prelate, 48 elected and 7 nominated lay and clerical members. The Roman CatholicArchbishop of Freiburg isMetropolitan of the Upper Rhine.[4]
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Baden, Grand Duchy of".Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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