A typical modern component turntable, showing the curved tonearm with a headshell at the end, under which lies themagnetic cartridge and its attached stylus touching down on the grooves of a blackrecord placed on the turntable's platter
Aphonograph, later called agramophone,[a] and since the 1940s arecord player, or more recently aturntable, is a device for the mechanical and analoguereproduction of sound.[b]
The sound vibrationwaveforms are recorded as corresponding physical deviations of a helical or spiral groove engraved, etched, incised, or impressed into the surface of a rotating cylinder or disc, called arecord. To recreate the sound, the surface is similarly rotated while a playbackstylus traces the groove and is therefore vibrated by it, faintly reproducing the recorded sound. In early acoustic phonographs, the stylus vibrated adiaphragm that produced sound waves coupled to the open air through a flaringhorn, or directly to the listener's ears throughstethoscope-type earphones.
The phonograph was invented in 1877 byThomas Edison;[1][2][3][4] its use would rise the following year.Alexander Graham Bell'sVolta Laboratory made several improvements in the 1880s and introduced thegraphophone, including the use of wax-coated cardboard cylinders and a cutting stylus that moved from side to side in ahelical groove around the record. In the 1890s,Emile Berliner initiated the transition fromphonograph cylinders to flat discs with a spiral groove running from the periphery to near the centre, coining the termgramophone for disc record players, which is predominantly used in many languages. Later improvements through the years included modifications to the turntable and its drive system, stylus, pickup system, and the sound andequalization systems.
The disk phonograph record was the dominant commercial audio distribution format throughout most of the 20th century, and phonographs became the first example ofhome audio that people owned and used at their residences.[5] In the 1960s, the use of8-track cartridges andcassette tapes were introduced as alternatives. By the late 1980s, phonograph use had declined sharply due to the popularity of cassettes and the rise of thecompact disc. However, records have undergone arevival since the late 2000s.[6]
The terminology used to describe record-playing devices is not uniform across the English-speaking world. In modern contexts, the playback device is often referred to as a "turntable", "record player", or "record changer". Each of these terms denotes distinct items. A record player is generally a complete unit with speakers, while a turntable refers to a component which is connected to a separate amplifier and speakers.[7] An automatic turntable will move the tone arm and shut off the motor after play, while a manual turntable requires placing the tone arm onto the record and manually returning the tonearm after play.[8] Arecord changer plays a stack of records in sequence.[9] A coin-operatedjukebox plays from a large selection of records.
When integrated into aDJ setup with amixer, turntables are colloquially known as "decks".[10] In later versions of electric phonographs, commonly known since the 1940s as record players or turntables, the movements of the stylus are transformed into anelectrical signal by atransducer. This signal is then converted back into sound through aphono stage, anamplifier and one or moreloudspeakers.[11]
The term "phonograph", meaning "sound writing", originates from theGreek wordsφωνή (phonē, meaning 'sound' or 'voice') andγραφή (graphē, meaning 'writing'). Similarly, the terms "gramophone" and "graphophone" have roots in the Greek wordsγράμμα (gramma, meaning 'letter') andφωνή (phōnē, meaning 'voice').
InBritish English, "gramophone" may refer to any sound-reproducing machine that utilizesdisc records. These were introduced and popularized in the UK by theGramophone Company. Initially, "gramophone" was a proprietarytrademark of the company, and any use of the name by competing disc record manufacturers was rigorously challenged in court. However, in 1910, an English court ruled that the term had become generic.[12]
An Edison Standard Phonograph that uses wax cylinders
InAmerican English, "phonograph", properly specific to machines made by Edison, was sometimes used in a generic sense as early as the 1890s to include cylinder-playing machines made by others. But it was then considered strictly incorrect to apply it toEmile Berliner's Gramophone, a different machine that played nonrecordable discs (although Edison's original Phonograph patent included the use of discs.[13])
Wood engraving published inThe Illustrated Australian News, depicting a public demonstration of new technology at the Royal Society of Victoria (Melbourne, Australia) on 8 August 1878.
InAustralian English, "record player" was the term; "turntable" was a more technical term; "gramophone" was restricted to the old mechanical (i.e., wind-up) players; and "phonograph" was used as inBritish English. The "phonograph" was first demonstrated in Australia on 14 June 1878 to a meeting of theRoyal Society of Victoria by the Society's Honorary Secretary,Alex Sutherland who published "The Sounds of the Consonants, as Indicated by the Phonograph" in the Society's journal in November that year.[14] On 8 August 1878 the phonograph was publicly demonstrated at the Society's annualconversazione, along with a range of other new inventions, including themicrophone.[15]
The phonautograph was invented on March 25, 1857, by FrenchmanÉdouard-Léon Scott de Martinville,[16] an editor and typographer of manuscripts at a scientific publishing house in Paris.[17] One day while editing Professor Longet'sTraité de Physiologie, he happened upon that customer's engraved illustration of the anatomy of the human ear, and conceived of "the imprudent idea of photographing the word." In 1853 or 1854 (Scott cited both years) he began working on "le problème de la parole s'écrivant elle-même" ("the problem of speech writing itself"), aiming to build a device that could replicate the function of the human ear.[17][18]
Scott coated a plate of glass with a thin layer oflampblack. He then took an acoustic trumpet, and at its tapered end affixed a thin membrane that served as the analog to theeardrum. At the center of that membrane, he attached a rigid boar's bristle approximately a centimetre long, placed so that it just grazed the lampblack. As the glass plate was slid horizontally in a well formed groove at a speed of one meter per second, a person would speak into the trumpet, causing the membrane to vibrate and the stylus to trace figures[17] that were scratched into the lampblack.[19] On March 25, 1857, Scott received the French patent[20] #17,897/31,470 for his device, which he called a phonautograph.[21] The earliest known surviving recorded sound of a human voice was conducted on April 9, 1860, when Scott recorded[19] someone singing the song "Au Clair de la Lune" ("By the Light of the Moon") on the device.[22] However, the device was not designed to play back sounds,[19][23] as Scott intended for people to read back the tracings,[24] which he called phonautograms.[18] This was not the first time someone had used a device to create direct tracings of the vibrations of sound-producing objects, astuning forks had been used in this way by English physicistThomas Young in 1807.[25] By late 1857, with support from the Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale, Scott's phonautograph was recording sounds with sufficient precision to be adopted by the scientific community, paving the way for the nascent science of acoustics.[18]
The device's true significance in the history of recorded sound was not fully realized prior to March 2008, when it was discovered and resurrected in a Paris patent office by First Sounds, an informal collaborative of American audio historians, recording engineers, and sound archivists founded to make the earliest sound recordings available to the public. The phonautograms were then digitally converted by scientists at theLawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in California, who were able to play back the recorded sounds, something Scott had never conceived of. Prior to this point, the earliest known record of a human voice was thought to be an 1877 phonograph recording byThomas Edison.[19][26] The phonautograph would play a role in the development of thegramophone, whose inventor, Emile Berliner, worked with the phonautograph in the course of developing his own device.[27]
Charles Cros, a French poet and inventor, is the first person known to have made the conceptual leap from recording sound as a traced line to the theoretical possibility of reproducing the sound from the tracing and then to devising a definite method for accomplishing the reproduction. On April 30, 1877, he deposited a sealed envelope containing a summary of his ideas with theFrench Academy of Sciences, a standard procedure used by scientists and inventors to establishpriority of conception of unpublished ideas in the event of any later dispute.[28]
An account of his invention was published on October 10, 1877, by which date Cros had devised a more direct procedure: the recording stylus could scribe its tracing through a thin coating of acid-resistant material on a metal surface and the surface could then be etched in an acid bath, producing the desired groove without the complication of an intermediate photographic procedure.[29] The author of this article called the device aphonographe, but Cros himself favored the wordpaleophone, sometimes rendered in French asvoix du passé ('voice of the past').[30]
Cros was a poet of meager means, not in a position to pay a machinist to build a working model, and largely content to bequeath his ideas to thepublic domain free of charge and let others reduce them to practice, but after the earliest reports of Edison's presumably independent invention crossed the Atlantic he had his sealed letter of April 30 opened and read at the December 3, 1877 meeting of the French Academy of Sciences, claiming due scientific credit for priority of conception.[31]
Throughout the first decade (1890–1900) of commercial production of the earliest crude disc records, the direct acid-etch method first invented by Cros was used to create the metal master discs, but Cros was not around to claim any credit or to witness the humble beginnings of the eventually rich phonographic library he had foreseen. He had died in 1888 at the age of 45.[32]
Thomas Edison conceived the principle of recording and reproducing sound between May and July 1877 as a byproduct of his efforts to "play back" recordedtelegraph messages and to automate speech sounds for transmission bytelephone.[33] His first experiments were with waxed paper.[34] He announced his invention of the firstphonograph, a device for recording and replaying sound, on November 21, 1877 (early reports appear inScientific American and several newspapers in the beginning of November, and an even earlier announcement of Edison working on a "talking-machine" can be found in theChicago Daily Tribune on May 9[35]), and he demonstrated the device for the first time on November 29 (it waspatented on February 19, 1878, as US Patent 200,521). "In December, 1877, a young man came into the office of theScientific American, and placed before the editors a small, simple machine about which few preliminary remarks were offered. The visitor without any ceremony whatever turned the crank, and to the astonishment of all present the machine said: 'Good morning. How do you do? How do you like the phonograph?' The machine thus spoke for itself, and made known the fact that it was the phonograph..."[36]
The music criticHerman Klein attended an early demonstration (1881–82) of a similar machine. On the early phonograph's reproductive capabilities he wrote in retrospect: "It sounded to my ear like someone singing about half a mile away, or talking at the other end of a big hall; but the effect was rather pleasant, save for a peculiar nasal quality wholly due to the mechanism, although there was little of the scratching that later was a prominent feature of the flat disc. Recording for that primitive machine was a comparatively simple matter. I had to keep my mouth about six inches away from the horn and remember not to make my voice too loud if I wanted anything approximating to a clear reproduction; that was all. When it was played over to me and I heard my own voice for the first time, one or two friends who were present said that it sounded rather like mine; others declared that they would never have recognised it. I daresay both opinions were correct."[37]
The Argus newspaper from Melbourne, Australia, reported on an 1878 demonstration at theRoyal Society of Victoria, writing "There was a large attendance of ladies and gentlemen, who appeared greatly interested in the various scientific instruments exhibited. Among these the most interesting, perhaps, was the trial made by Mr. Sutherland with the phonograph, which was most amusing. Several trials were made, and were all more or less successful. 'Rule Britannia' was distinctly repeated, but great laughter was caused by the repetition of the convivial song of 'He's a jolly good fellow,' which sounded as if it was being sung by an old man of 80 with a cracked voice."[38]
Phonograph cabinet built withEdison cement, 1912. The clockwork portion of the phonograph is concealed in the base beneath the statue; the amplifying horn is the shell behind the human figure.
Edison's early phonographs recorded onto a thin sheet of metal, normallytinfoil, which was temporarily wrapped around ahelically grooved cylinder mounted on a correspondinglythreaded rod supported by plain and threadedbearings. While the cylinder was rotated and slowly progressed along itsaxis, the airbornesound vibrated adiaphragm connected to a stylus that indented the foil into the cylinder's groove, thereby recording the vibrations as "hill-and-dale" variations of the depth of the indentation.[39]
By 1890, record manufacturers had begun using a rudimentary duplication process to mass-produce their product. While the live performers recorded the master phonograph, up to ten tubes led to blank cylinders in other phonographs. Until this development, each record had to be custom-made. Before long, a more advancedpantograph-based process made it possible to simultaneously produce 90–150 copies of each record. However, as demand for certain records grew, popular artists still needed to re-record and re-re-record their songs. Reportedly, the medium's first major African-American starGeorge Washington Johnson was obliged to perform his "The Laughing Song" (or the separate "The Whistling Coon")[40] up to thousands of times in a studio during his recording career. Sometimes he would sing "The Laughing Song" more than fifty times in a day, at twenty cents per rendition. (The average price of a single cylinder in the mid-1890s was about fifty cents.)[citation needed]
Early phonograph at Deaf Smith County Historical Museum inHereford,Texas
Lambert'slead cylinder recording for an experimental talking clock is often identified as the oldest surviving playable sound recording,[41]although the evidence advanced for its early date is controversial.[42]Waxphonograph cylinder recordings ofHandel's choral music made on June 29, 1888, atThe Crystal Palace in London were thought to be the oldest-known surviving musical recordings,[43] until the recent playback by a group of American historians of aphonautograph recording ofAu clair de la lune recorded on April 9, 1860.[44]
The 1860 phonautogram had not until then been played, as it was only a transcription of sound waves into graphic form on paper for visual study. Recently developed optical scanning and image processing techniques have given new life to early recordings by making it possible to play unusually delicate or physically unplayable media without physical contact.[45]
A recording made on a sheet of tinfoil at an 1878 demonstration of Edison's phonograph in St. Louis, Missouri, has been played back by optical scanning and digital analysis. A few other early tinfoil recordings are known to survive, including a slightly earlier one that is believed to preserve the voice of U.S. PresidentRutherford B. Hayes, but as of May 2014 they have not yet been scanned.[clarification needed] These antique tinfoil recordings, which have typically been stored folded, are too fragile to be played back with a stylus without seriously damaging them. Edison's 1877 tinfoil recording ofMary Had a Little Lamb, not preserved, has been called the first instance ofrecorded verse.[46]
On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the phonograph, Edison recounted recitingMary Had a Little Lamb to test his first machine. The 1927 event was filmed by an earlysound-on-filmnewsreel camera, and an audio clip from that film's soundtrack is sometimes mistakenly presented as the original 1877 recording.[47]Wax cylinder recordings made by 19th-century media legends such asP. T. Barnum and Shakespearean actorEdwin Booth are amongst the earliest verified recordings by the famous that have survived to the present.[48][49]
Alexander Graham Bell and his two associates took Edison'stinfoil phonograph and modified it considerably to make it reproduce sound from wax instead of tinfoil. They began their work at Bell'sVolta Laboratory in Washington, D. C., in 1879, and continued until they were granted basic patents in 1886 for recording in wax.[50]
Although Edison hadinvented the phonograph in 1877, the fame bestowed on him for this invention was not due to its efficiency. Recording with his tinfoil phonograph was too difficult to be practical, as the tinfoil tore easily, and even when the stylus was properly adjusted, its reproduction of sound was distorted, and good for only a few playbacks; nevertheless Edison had discovered the idea ofsound recording. However immediately after his discovery he did not improve it, allegedly because of an agreement to spend the next five years developing theNew York City electric light and power system.[50]
Meanwhile, Bell, ascientist and experimenter at heart, was looking for new worlds to conquer after having patented thetelephone. According toSumner Tainter, it was throughGardiner Green Hubbard that Bell took up the phonograph challenge. Bell had marriedHubbard's daughter Mabel in 1879 while Hubbard was president of the Edison Speaking Phonograph Co., and his organization, which had purchased the Edison patent, was financially troubled because people did not want to buy a machine that seldom worked well and proved difficult for the average person to operate.[50]
A 'G' (Graham Bell) model Graphophone being played back by a typist after its cylinder had recorded dictation.
The sound vibrations had been indented in the wax that had been applied to the Edison phonograph. The following was the text of one of their recordings: "There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, than are dreamed of in your philosophy. I am a Graphophone and my mother was a phonograph."[51] Most of the disc machines designed at the Volta Lab had their disc mounted on vertical turntables. The explanation is that in the early experiments, the turntable, with disc, was mounted on the shop lathe, along with the recording and reproducing heads. Later, when the complete models were built, most of them featured vertical turntables.[50]
One interesting exception was a horizontal seven inch turntable. The machine, although made in 1886, was a duplicate of one made earlier but taken to Europe byChichester Bell. Tainter was grantedU.S. patent 385,886 on July 10, 1888. The playing arm is rigid, except for a pivoted vertical motion of 90 degrees to allow removal of the record or a return to starting position. While recording or playing, the record not only rotated, but moved laterally under the stylus, which thus described a spiral, recording 150 grooves to the inch.[50]
The basic distinction between the Edison's first phonograph patent and the Bell and Tainter patent of 1886 was the method of recording. Edison's method was to indent the sound waves on a piece of tin foil, while Bell and Tainter's invention called for cutting, or "engraving", the sound waves into a wax record with a sharp recording stylus.[50]
A later-model Columbia Graphophone of 1901Edison-Phonograph playing:Iola by the Edison Military Band (video, 3 min 51 s)
In 1885, when the Volta Associates were sure that they had a number of practical inventions, they filedpatent applications and began to seek out investors. TheVolta Graphophone Company of Alexandria, Virginia, was created on January 6, 1886, and incorporated on February 3, 1886. It was formed to control the patents and to handle the commercial development of their sound recording and reproduction inventions, one of which became the firstDictaphone.[50]
After the Volta Associates gave several demonstrations in the City of Washington, businessmen fromPhiladelphia created the American Graphophone Company on March 28, 1887, in order to produce and sell the machines for the budding phonograph marketplace.[52] The Volta Graphophone Company then merged with American Graphophone,[52] which itself later evolved intoColumbia Records.[53][54]
A coin-operated version of the Graphophone,U.S. patent 506,348, was developed by Tainter in 1893 to compete withnickel-in-the-slot entertainment phonographU.S. patent 428,750 demonstrated in 1889 by Louis T. Glass, manager of the Pacific Phonograph Company.[55]
The work of the Volta Associates laid the foundation for the successful use ofdictating machines in business, because their wax recording process was practical and their machines were durable. But it would take several more years and the renewed efforts of Edison and the further improvements ofEmile Berliner and many others, before therecording industry became a major factor inhome entertainment.[50]
The technology quickly became popular abroad, where it was also used in new ways. In 1895, for example,Hungary became the first country to use phonographs to conductfolklore andethnomusicological research, after which it became common practice in ethnography.[56]
Discs are not inherently better than cylinders at providing audio fidelity. Rather, the advantages of the format are seen in the manufacturing process: discs can be stamped, and the matrixes to stamp disc can be shipped to other printing plants for a global distribution of recordings; cylinders could not be stamped until 1901–1902, when the gold moulding process was introduced by Edison.[57]
A Victor V phonograph, circa 1907
Through experimentation, in 1892, Berliner began commercial production of his disc records and "gramophones". His "phonograph record" was the first disc record to be offered to the public. They were five inches (13 cm) in diameter and recorded on one side only. Seven-inch (17.5 cm) records followed in 1895. The same year, Berliner replaced the hard rubber used to make the discs with ashellac compound.[58] Berliner's early records had poor sound quality, however. Work byEldridge R. Johnson eventually improved the sound fidelity to a point where it was as good as the cylinder.[59][when?]
Wax cylinders would continue to be used into the 1920s, with New York City-basedCzech immigrant, businessman, and inventorAlois Benjamin Saliger using cylinders for his "Psycho-Phone" or "Psychophone", a specialized phonograph or gramophone that Saliger intended to be used in the field ofpsychology. Invented in 1927 forsleep learning, the Psychophone featured a clock mounted on top of a phonograph, with a repeater device for rewinding and continuously replaying records. While Edison machines had a spring-powered motor, powered by crank on the side, Psychophone models featured an electric-powered motor. Saliger patented the device in 1932 as the "automatic time-controlled suggestion machine".[60][61]
In the 1930s,vinyl (originally known as vinylite) was introduced as a record material for radiotranscription discs, and for radio commercials. At that time, virtually no discs for home use were made from this material. Vinyl was used for the popular 78-rpmV-discs issued to US soldiers duringWorld War II. This significantly reduced breakage during transport. The first commercial vinylite record was the set of five 12" discs "Prince Igor" (Asch Records album S-800, dubbed from Soviet masters in 1945). Victor began selling some home-use vinyl 78s in late 1945; but most 78s were made of ashellac compound until the 78-rpm format was completely phased out. (Shellac records were heavier and more brittle.) 33s and 45s were, however, made exclusively of vinyl, with the exception of some 45s manufactured out ofpolystyrene.[62]
Philco all-transistor model TPA-1 phonograph, developed and produced in 1955Philco all-transistor model TPA-1 phonograph –Radio and Television News magazine, issue October 1955
In 1955,Philco developed and produced the world's first all-transistor phonograph models TPA-1 and TPA-2, which were announced in the June 28, 1955 edition ofThe Wall Street Journal.[63] Philco started to sell these all-transistor phonographs in the fall of 1955, for the price of $59.95. The October 1955 issue ofRadio & Television News magazine (page 41), had a full page detailed article on Philco's new consumer product. The all-transistor portable phonograph TPA-1 and TPA-2 models played only 45rpm records and used four 1.5 volt "D" batteries for their power supply. The "TPA" stands for "Transistor Phonograph Amplifier". Their circuitry used three Philco germanium PNP alloy-fused junction audio frequency transistors. After the 1956 season had ended, Philco decided to discontinue both models, for transistors were too expensive compared to vacuum tubes,[64][65] but by 1961 a $49.95 ($525.59 in 2024) portable, battery-powered radio-phonograph with seven transistors was available.[66]
In a belt-drive turntable themotor is located off-center from the platter, either underneath it or entirely outside of it, and is connected to the platter or counter-platter by adrive belt made fromelastomeric material.
The direct-drive turntable was invented by Shuichi Obata, an engineer atMatsushita (now Panasonic).[67] In 1969, Matsushita released it as theTechnics SP-10,[68] the first direct-drive turntable on the market.[69] The most influential direct-drive turntable was theTechnics SL-1200,[70] which, following the spread ofturntablism inhip hop culture, became the most widely used turntable in DJ culture for several decades.[70]
AnSME 3012 tonearm fitted on aThorens TD124 MkII turntable
In some high quality equipment, the arm carrying the pickup, known as a tonearm, is manufactured separately from the motor and turntable unit. Companies specialising in the manufacture of tonearms include the English companySME.
More sophisticated turntables were (and still are) frequently manufactured so as to incorporate a "cue lever", a device that mechanically lowers the tonearm on to the record. It enables the user to locate an individual track more easily, to pause a record, and to avoid the risk of scratching the record, which may require practice to avoid when lowering the tonearm manually.[71]
Early developments in linear turntables were from Rek-O-Kut (portable lathe/phonograph) and Ortho-Sonic in the 1950s, and Acoustical in the early 1960s. These were eclipsed by more successful implementations of the concept from the late 1960s through the early 1980s.[72]
A typical modern turntable, showing the curved tonearm with a headshell at the end, under which lies themagnetic cartridge and its attached stylus touching down on the grooves of a blackrecord placed on the turntable's platter
The pickup, or cartridge, is atransducer that converts mechanical vibrations from a stylus into an electrical signal. The electrical signal isamplified and converted into sound by one or moreloudspeakers. Crystal and ceramic pickups that use thepiezoelectric effect have largely been replaced bymagnetic cartridges.
The pickup includes a stylus with a smalldiamond orsapphire tip that runs in the record groove. The stylus eventually becomes worn by contact with the groove, and it is usually replaceable.
Styli are classified as spherical or elliptical, although the tip is actually shaped as a half-sphere or a half-ellipsoid. Spherical styli are generally more robust than other types, but do not follow the groove as accurately, giving diminished high frequency response. Elliptical styli usually track the groove more accurately, with increased high frequency response and less distortion. For DJ use, the relative robustness of spherical styli make them generally preferred for back-cuing and scratching. There are a number of derivations of the basic elliptical type, including the Shibata or fine line stylus, which can more accurately reproduce high frequency information contained in the record groove. This is especially important for playback of quadraphonic recordings.[73]
A few specialistlaser turntables read the groove optically using a laser pickup. Since there is no physical contact with the record, no wear is incurred. However, this advantage is debatable, since vinyl records have been tested to withstand even 1200 plays with no significant audio degradation, provided that it is played with a high-quality cartridge and that the surfaces are clean.[74] The disadvantage of the laser turntable is that the record must be extremely clean, lest the laser audibly "play" surface dust and debris that would normally be pushed aside by a mechanical stylus.
An alternative approach is to take a high-resolution photograph or scan of each side of the record and interpret the image of the grooves usingcomputer software. An amateur attempt using a flatbed scanner lacked satisfactory fidelity.[75] A professional system employed by theLibrary of Congress produces excellent quality.[76] The system has the potential to recover and reconstruct recordings from fragile shellac discs that have broken into pieces.
A development in stylus form came about by the attention to theCD-4quadraphonic sound modulation process, which requires up to 50 kHz frequency response, with cartridges likeTechnics EPC-100CMK4 capable of playback on frequencies up to 100 kHz. This requires a stylus with a narrow side radius, such as 5 micrometres (0.2mils). A narrow-profile elliptical stylus is able to read the higher frequencies (greater than 20 kHz), but at an increased wear, since the contact surface is narrower. For overcoming this problem, theShibata stylus was invented around 1972 in Japan by Norio Shibata of JVC.[77]
The Shibata-designed stylus offers a greater contact surface with the groove, which in turn means less pressure over the vinyl surface and thus less wear. A positive side effect is that the greater contact surface also means the stylus reads sections of the vinyl that were not worn by the common spherical stylus. In a demonstration by JVC records worn after 500 plays at a relatively high 4.5 g tracking force with a spherical stylus, played perfectly with the Shibata profile.[78]
Other advanced stylus shapes appeared following the same goal of increasing contact surface, improving on the Shibata. Chronologically: "Hughes" Shibata variant (1975),[79] "Ogura" (1978),[80] Van den Hul (1982).[81] Such a stylus may be marketed as "Hyperelliptical" (Shure), "Alliptic", "Fine Line" (Ortofon), "Line contact" (Audio Technica), "Polyhedron", "LAC", or "Stereohedron" (Stanton).[82]
A keel-shaped diamond stylus appeared as a byproduct of the invention of theCED Videodisc. This, together with laser-diamond-cutting technologies, made possible the "ridge" shaped stylus, such as the Namiki (1985)[83] design, and Fritz Gyger (1989)[84] design. This type of stylus is marketed as "MicroLine" (Audio technica), "Micro-Ridge" (Shure), or "Replicant" (Ortofon).[82]
To address the problem of steel needle wear uponrecords, which resulted in the cracking of the latter,RCA Victor devised unbreakable records in 1930, by mixing polyvinyl chloride with plasticisers, in a proprietary formula they called Victrolac, which was first used in 1931, in motion picture discs.[85]
Since the late 1950s, almost all phono input stages have used the RIAA equalization standard. Before settling on that standard, there were many different equalizations in use, including EMI,His Master's Voice, Columbia, Decca FFRR, NAB, Ortho, BBC transcription, etc. Recordings made using these other equalization schemes typically sound odd if they are played through a RIAA-equalized preamplifier called a "phono stage". High-performance (so-called "multicurve disc") phono stages, which include multiple, selectable equalizations, are no longer commonly available. However, some vintage phono stages, such as theLEAK varislope series, are still obtainable and can be refurbished. Newer phono stages like the Esoteric Sound Re-Equalizer or the K-A-B MK2 Vintage Signal Processor are also available.[86]
Although largely replaced since the introduction of thecompact disc in 1982, record albums still sold in small numbers throughout the 1980s and 1990s, but gradually sidelined in favor ofCD players andtape decks inhome audio environments.[87] Record players continued to be manufactured and sold into the 21st century, although in small numbers and mainly forDJs.[88] Following a resurgence in sales of records since the late 2000s,[89][90] an increasing number of turntables have been manufactured and sold.[91] Notably, Japanese companyPanasonic brought back its well-known advancedTechnics SL-1200 at the 2016Consumer Electronics Show[92] during whichSony also headlined a turntable, amid increasing interest in the format.[93] Similarly,Audio-Technica revived its 1980sSound Burger portable player in 2023.[94]
ACrosley retro-styled suitcase record player produced in c. 2013
At the low-end of the market,Crosley has been especially popular with its suitcase record players[95] and have played a big part in the vinyl revival and its adoption among younger people and children in the 2010s.[96]
New interest in records has led to the development of turntables with additional modern features. USB turntables have a built-in audio interface, which transfers the analog sound directly to the connected computer.[97] Some USB turntables transfer the audio without equalization, but are sold with software that allows the EQ of the transferred audio file to be adjusted. There are also many turntables on the market designed to be plugged into a computer via aUSB port forneedle dropping purposes.[98]
Modern turntables have also been released featuringBluetooth technology to output a record's sound wirelessly through speakers.[93] Sony have also released a high-end turntable with ananalog-to-digital converter to convert the sound from a playing record into a 24-bithigh-resolution audio file inDSD orWAV formats.[99]
^"www.phonozoic.net".Transcription and translation of December 3, 1877 unsealing of April, 1877 Cros deposit.Archived from the original on July 24, 2011.
^Patrick Feaster, "Speech Acoustics and the Keyboard Telephone: Rethinking Edison's Discovery of the Phonograph Principle,"ARSC Journal 38:1 (Spring 2007), 10–43; Oliver Berliner and Patrick Feaster, "Letters to the Editor: Rethinking Edison's Discovery of the Phonograph Principle,"ARSC Journal 38:2 (Fall 2007), 226–228.
^Aaron Cramer, Tim Fabrizio, and George Paul, "A Dialogue on 'The Oldest Playable Recording,'"ARSC Journal 33:1 (Spring 2002), 77–84; Patrick Feaster and Stephan Puille, "Dialogue on 'The Oldest Playable Recording' (continued),ARSC Journal 33:2 (Fall 2002), 237–242.
^Encyclopedia of World Biography. "Alexander Graham BellArchived 2010-01-05 at theWayback Machine", Encyclopedia of World Biography. Thomson Gale. 2004. Retrieved December 20, 2009 from Encyclopedia.com.
^Wright, Gwen."PsychoPhone".History Detectives: Special Investigations. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). Retrieved12 February 2025.
^Benjamin, Ludy T. (23 February 2017)."The Psycho-Phone".Cummings Center Blog. University of Akron. Center for the History of Psychology. Retrieved12 February 2025.
^Peter A Soderbergh, "Olde Records Price Guide 1900–1947", Wallace–Homestead Book Company, Des Moines, Iowa, 1980, pp.193–194
^The Wall Street Journal, "Phonograph Operated On Transistors to Be Sold by Philco Corp.", June 28, 1955, page 8.
^Barton, F.C. (1932 [1931]).Victrolac Motion Picture Records. Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, April 193218(4):452–460 (accessed at archive.org on 5 August 2011)
^Powell, James R., Jr. and Randall G. Stehle. Playback Equalizer Settings for 78 rpm Recordings. Third Edition. 1993, 2002, 2007, Gramophone Adventures, Portage MI.ISBN0-9634921-3-6
Gelatt, Roland.The Fabulous Phonograph, 1877–1977. Second rev. ed., [being also the] First Collier Books ed., in series,Sounds of the Century. New York: Collier, 1977. 349 p., ill.ISBN0-02-032680-7
Cylinder Preservation & Digitization Project – Over 6,000 cylinder recordings held by the Department of Special Collections, University of California, Santa Barbara, free for download or streamed online.
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