| Government of the Nguyễn dynasty | |
|---|---|
| Chánh-phủ Đại-Nam (政府大南) Chánh-phủ Nam-Triều (政府南朝) Gouvernement Impériál de l'Annam | |
 _colour_scheme_-_%25C4%2590%25E1%25BA%25A1i_Nam_(%25E5%25A4%25A7%25E5%258D%2597).svg) | |
| Overview | |
| Established | 1 June 1802 |
| Dissolved | 25 August 1945 |
| State | Nguyễn dynasty |
| Leader | Emperor |
| Appointed by | Emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty and theresident superior of Annam (1897–1945) |
| Main organ | Thị Thư Viện,Thị Hàn viện, andNội Hàn Viện (1802–1819) Văn thư phòng (1820–1829) Nội các (1829–1934) Viện cơ mật (1834–1945) Ngự tiền văn phòng (1934–1945) |
| Headquarters | Imperial City ofHuế |
Thegovernment of theNguyễn dynasty, officially theSouthern Court (Vietnamese:Nam Triều;chữ Hán: 南朝)[a] historicaly referred to as theHuế Court (Vietnamese:Triều đình Huế;chữ Hán: 朝廷化), centred around theEmperor (皇帝,Hoàng Đế) as theabsolute monarch, surrounded by various imperial agencies and ministries which stayed under the emperor's presidency. Following the signing of the 1884Patenôtre Treaty the French took over a lot of control and while the government of the Nguyễn dynasty still nominally ruled theFrench protectorates of Annam andTonkin, in reality the French maintained control over these territories and the Nguyễn government became subsidiary to the administration ofFrench Indochina.[1] DuringWorld War II theJapanese launched acoup d'état ousting the French and establishing theEmpire of Vietnam which was ruled by the Nguyễn government.[1] During theAugust Revolution the Nguyễn government was abolished in theaftermath of World War II.[1]
During the 1930s it was officially called the "Government of the Southern Court" (Chánh-phủ Nam-Triều).[2]
After ascending to the throne theGia Long Emperor adopted the organisational structure of theRevival Lê dynasty's government.[3] From 1802 until 1906 the ministries of the imperial government of the Nguyễn dynasty consisted of theMinistry of Personnel (吏部,Lại Bộ),Ministry of Revenue (戶部,Hộ Bộ),Ministry of Rites (禮部,Lễ Bộ),Ministry of War (兵部,Binh Bộ),Ministry of Justice (刑部,Hình Bộ), and theMinistry of Public Works (工部,Công Bộ), these were known together as theLục Bộ (六部).[4][3]
The reforms of EmperorMinh Mạng transformed the Vietnamese bureaucracy from a military apparatus created under Gia Long associated with generals, under the direction of theCông Đồng (公同, "Council"), mainly through top-down orders into a highly centralisedmeritocratic system.[5] Minh Mạng's reforms to the Southern Court would remain largely unchanged until theBảo Đại Emperor's reforms in 1933.[5]
The administrative system of the Nguyễn dynasty was thinly spread across the country as the capital city of Huế is around 700 km fromHanoi and around 1000 km fromGia Định, the two most important economic centres of the country and most populous cities.[5] Meaning that the imperial government had to spread diverse functions such as management tools, including directories, demographics, taxes, information tools, and administrative data storage systems across a vast territory.[5] In order to better coordinate and communicate between the vastly distant and different regions of the country the Minh Mạng Emperor set up government stations and communication systems throughout his realm.[5]
After ascending the throne in 1820, all of Minh Mạng's actions during his first decade on the throne were to the administrative apparatus (especially bureaucracies) to be prepared to replace the "low-literate" (ít chữ nghĩa) military generals, from 1831 to 1834 these changes would be implemented on a national scale.[5] One of his first reforms to change the militaristic nature of the government of the Nguyễn dynasty was to establish two specialised agencies for communicating between Huế and the regions, namely theBưu Chính ty and theThông Chính ty. Before these tasks were done by the Ministry of War.[5]
At the same time, in the first year of coming to power, the Minh Mạng Emperor reorganised the bureaucracy of the imperial court by consolidating the different cabinets into theVăn thư phòng (文書房). In 1829 theVăn thư phòng was replaced with theNội các (內閣, "Cabinet").[5] This was because Minh Mạng understood the way how the government of theManchuQing dynasty inChina functioned and used them as a model for establishing theNội các and theCơ mật viện (機密院, "Secret Institute"), based on theNội các andQuân cơ xứ (軍機處) of the Qing.[5] In the centralised administrations of China and Vietnam, the Emperor theoretically holds absolute power in all decisions. But in reality, he relies on an intricate bureaucratic apparatus below him to provide him with information, gather data, and prepare all agendas.[5]
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Among the Minh Mạng Emperor's reforms was the increasingly close institutionalisation associated with the establishment of new government agencies.[6] During the first 15 years of his rule, the Minh Mạng Emperor restructured the entire administration of the dynasty both at the central and local levels, basically codifying the political structures that the Nguyễn dynasty would use untilits downfall in 1945.[6] The Minh Mạng Emperor also increased the levels of supervision at every level of the bureaucracy, especially for the compiling, checking, copying, backing up, browsing, sending, and executing documents at every level of the Nguyễn administration.[6]
The Minh Mạng Emperor also increased the direct influence of the monarch over the entire administrative system of the country and increased his power within the government.[6]
This more complex system also meant that much more documents had to be created for communication between various agencies, the administrative divisions, and the imperial court in Huế.[6] This increase in the number of government documents, especially imperial documents, shows an increase in the size and scope of the administrative system of the Minh Mạng period, associated with the expansion of the network of drafting and circulating documents. With most of the system centering on the Emperor, theNội các, and theCơ mật viện.[6]
Following theFrench conquest of Vietnam Đại Nam became two French protectorates in the form ofAnnam andTonkin. Although the emperors of the Nguyễn dynasty were still nominally in control of the protectorates of Annam and Tonkin, the resident-superior of Annam gradually gained more influence over the imperial court in Huế.[7] All constituent countries of French Indochina had their own legal systems.[8] In Annam and Tonkin the laws of the Nguyễn dynasty, such asSắc (敕, "Imperial Order"),Chí (誌, "Ordinance"), andDụ (諭, "Decree"), remained in effect but were subordinate to the laws of the French administration.[8]
Since the fall of Huế during theCần Vương rebellion against the French on 7 May 1885 the government of theFrench protectorate of Annam would gradually take over the management of the budget and finances of the government of the Southern dynasty.[9] In 1894, the court of theThành Thái Emperor assignedResident-SuperiorLéon Jules Pol Boulloche to take care of the management of the state's revenues, expenditures, taxes, etc.[10][9] In 1897 the resident-superior was granted the power to appoint the Nguyễn dynasty emperors and presided over the meetings of theViện cơ mật.[7] These moves incorporated French officials directly into the administrative structure of the imperial Huế Court and further legitimised French rule in the legislative branch of the Nguyễn government.[7] From this period onwards any imperial edicts issued by the emperors of Đại Nam had to be confirmed by the resident-superior of Annam giving him both legislative and executive power over the Nguyễn government.[7]
In the year 1898 the federal government ofFrench Indochina took over the financial and property management duties of the Nguyễn dynasty's imperial court meaning that the Nguyễn dynasty emperor (at the time Thành Thái) became a salaried employee of the Indochinese colonial structure, reducing their power to being only a civil servant of the protectorate government.[7] The resident-superior of Annam also took over the management of provincialmandarins and was a member of the Supreme Council (Conseil supérieur) of the Government-General of French Indochina.[7] In 1900, thegovernor-general of French Indochina issued a decree that established theCouncil of the Protectorate (Hội đồng Bảo hộ) alongside the resident-superior to "discuss and determine the revenue and expenditures of the budget of the French protectorate of Annam, but that this council would act according to the calculations and orders of the resident-superior.[9] At the meetings of theCouncil of French Indochina (Hội đồng Đông Dương) the governor-general would decide through executive orders.[11][9]
According to researcher Nguyễn Đắc Xuân, in 1907, the imperial court of the Nguyễn dynasty sentCao Xuân Dục andHuỳnh Côn, theThượng thư of theHộ Bộ, toFrench Cochinchina to "hold a conference on education" (bàn nghị học chính) with the French authorities on the future of the Annamese education system.[12] This meeting was also recorded in the workHoàng Việt Giáp Tý niên biểu written byNguyễn Bá Trác.[3] The creation of a ministry of education was orchestrated by the French to reform the Nguyễn dynasty's educational system to match French ambitions in the region more.[3]
On the ninth day of the ninth month of the first year of the reign of theDuy Tân Emperor theHọc Bộ was established by imperial decree (諭,Dụ) to take over the functions relating to education from the Ministry of Rites.[3]
While theHọc Bộ was nominally a part of the Nguyễn dynasty's administrative apparatus, actual control was in the hands of the FrenchCouncil for the Improvement of Indigenous Education in Annam (French:Conseil de Perfectionnement de l’Enseignement indigène en Annam; Vietnamese:Hội đồng Hoàn thiện giáo dục Bản xứ Trung Kỳ; Hán-Nôm: 會同完善教育本處中圻), which dictated its policies.[4] All work done by the ministry was according to the plans and the command of the FrenchDirector of Education of Annam (監督學政中圻,Giám đốc Học chính Trung Kỳ).[3] The French administration in Annam continuously revised the curriculum to be taught in order to fit the French system.[3]
On 6 November 1925 a "Convention" (Quy ước) was established afterKhải Định's death that stated that while the sovereign is abroad a council (Hội đồng phụ chính) had the power to run all affairs of the Southern court, with the signing of the convention only regulations related to custom, favours, amnesty, conferring titles, dignitaries, among others are given by the emperor.[13] Everything else is up to the French protectorate government.[13] This document also merges the budget of the Southern court with the budget of theFrench protectorate of Annam and that all the meetings of the Council of Ministers (Hội đồng thượng thư) must be chaired by theresident-superior of Annam.[13]
Thus, in this document, the French colonialists completely took over all the power of the government of the Southern dynasty, even in Trung Kỳ.[13]
In 1933 theBảo Đại Emperor issued a series of reforms, among them he reformed the affairs of the court, such as rearranging internal affairs and administration.[13] He also gave up a number of customs that the previous Nguyễn dynasty emperors had set forth such that subjects now did no longer have to bow down and could look up at the emperor whenever he went somewhere and instituted thatmandarins would have toshake hands with the emperor instead of bowing down.[13]
On 10 September 1932, the Bảo Đại Emperor issued Decree No. 1 abolishing theregency council and affirming the monarchy of Đại Nam and abolishing the regency.[13]
Among these reforms was an imperial edict signed on 8 April 1933 that reshuffled the cabinet, as the Bảo Đại Emperor decided to govern himself and ordained five new well-known ministers from the academic and administrative circles.[13] He retiredNguyễn Hữu Bài of the Ministry of Personnel (Bộ Lại),Tôn Thất Đàn of the Ministry of Justice (Bộ Hình),Phạm Liệu of the Ministry of War (Bộ Binh),Võ Liêm of the Ministry of Rites (Bộ Lễ),Vương Tứ Đại of the Ministry of Public Works (Bộ Công).[13]
The firing of these high ranking mandarins of the government of the Southern dynasty caused a stir in public opinion at that time, these events caused the poetNguyễn Trọng Cẩn to convey in detail the feelings of theVietnamese people at the time through a poem using a unique set of homonyms as a play on words:[14]
The old seven ministries were replaced with only five ministries, namely the Ministry of Personnel (Bộ Lại) headed byNgô Đình Diệm, theMinistry of Ceremonies and Fine Arts (Bộ Lễ nghi - Mỹ thuật) headed byThái Văn Toản,Ministry of National Education (Bộ Quốc gia Giáo dục) headed byPhạm Quỳnh, Ministry of Justice (Bộ Tư pháp) headed byBùi Bằng Đoàn, and the Ministry of Public Works (Bộ Công chính) headed byHồ Đắc Khải.[13] Later the Bảo Đại Emperor also established theMinistry of Finance and Social Relief (Bộ Tài chính và Cứu tế Xã hội).
The Ministry of Personnel was the only ministry that the Bảo Đại Emperor didn't reform as it would remain practically unchanged until it was renamed to theMinistry of Internal Affairs in 1942.[15]
On 24 October 1933 the Bảo Đại Emperor signed an imperial decree stating that theConsultative Assembly of Tonkin now represents the government of the Southern dynasty in theFrench protectorate of Tonkin.[13] Later in December 1933 the Emperor traveled to Tonkin to visit the people and tell them about his reforms.[13]
By 1939 the number of ministries in Bảo Đại's cabinet would increase to 7.[16]
Following theJapanese coup d'état in French Indochina, the Bảo Đại Emperor issued an imperial edict revoking theprotectorate treaty of 1884 restoring Vietnamese independence from France, but in reality theEmpire of Vietnam was aJapanese puppet state.[17]Trần Trọng Kim, a renowned historian and scholar, was chosen to lead the government as itsprime minister.[17]
On 7 April 1945, the Bảo Đại Emperor signed Decree No. 5 approving the composition of Trần Trọng Kim's new cabinet and on 12 May he dissolved theHouse of Representatives of Annam.[13]
The Trần Trọng Kim cabinet included 10 ministries, namely theMinistry of Foreign Affairs (Bộ Ngoại giao),Ministry of Internal Affairs (Bộ Nội vụ),Ministry of Justice (Bộ Tư pháp),Ministry of Education and Fine Arts (Bộ Giáo dục và Mỹ nghệ),Ministry of Economic Affairs (Bộ Kinh tế),Ministry of Public Finance (Bộ Tài chính),Ministry of Public Works (Bộ Công chính),Ministry of Youth Affairs (Bộ Thanh niên),Ministry of Health and Relief (Bộ Y tế và Cứu tế),Ministry of Material Assistance (Bộ Tiếp tế).[18]
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Vietnam under the Nguyễn (1802–1945) was an absolute monarchy. The Huế government was centrally administered by several advisory imperial agencies in a Sino–Vietnamese pattern. The Emperor was the head of state, also the head of the government, and the royal members stayed after. Under the emperor were layers of secretariats with officials (mandarins), organised with different functions, acted like a semi-parliamentary system.
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TheLục Bộ (Council of Six Ministries) was a collective term for six royal agencies that held ministerial and judicial functions, administering the kingdom.[21] Each ministry had athượng thư (president), twotham tri (vice-president), twothị lang (minor-president). Under all above positions, the ministry divided itself into severalthanh lại ty (panels), which their staffs werelang trung (directors),viên ngoại lang (vice-directors) andchủ sự (secretaries). All members of the whole six ministries always totally numbered 100 people.[24]
TheViện đô sát (Censorate) was an important organ that observed the government and then reported to the Emperor. The Viện đô sát's senior officials were calledTả đô ngự sử (Censor-in-chief of the Left) andhữu đô ngự sử (Censor-in-chief of the Right). The Vietnamese censorate comprised sixlục khoa ("office of scrutiny"), each headed by anCấp sự trung (senior supervising secretary) official.[26]
The bureaucrat army of the royal court, local governments, and the military were divided into specific orders:[27]
| Rank | Civil position | Military position |
|---|---|---|
| First of firsts (Bậc trên nhất phẩm) | Royal Clan Court (Tông Nhân Phủ,Tôn nhân lệnh) Three Ducal Ministers (Tam công): * Grand Preceptor (Thái sư) * Grand Tutor (Thái phó) * Grand Protector (Thái bảo) | Same |
| First senior rank (Chánh nhất phẩm) | Left Right Imperial Clan Court (Tôn nhân phủ,Tả Hữu tôn chính") Three Vice-Ducal Ministers (Tam Thiếu) * Vice Preceptor (Thiếu sư) * Vice Tutor (Thiếu phó) * Vice Protector (Thiếu bảo) | Same |
| First junior rank (Tòng nhất phẩm) | Council of State (Tham chính viện) House of Councillors (Tham Nghị viện) Grand Secretariat (Thị trung Đại học sĩ) | Banner Unit Lieutenant General, General-in-Chief, Provincial Commander-in-Chief |
| Second senior rank (Chánh nhị phẩm) | Lục Bộ (Lục bộ): * Ministry of Administration (Bộ Lại) *Ministry of Rites (Bộ Lễ) * Ministry of Justice (Bộ Hình) * Ministry of Finance (Bộ Hộ) * Ministry of Public Works (Bộ Công) * Ministry of Military (Bộ Binh) SupremeCensorate (Đô sát viện,Tả Hữu Đô ngự sử) | Banner Captain General, Commandants of Divisions, Brigade General |
| Second junior rank (Tòng nhị phẩm) | 6 Ministerial Advisors (Lục bộ Tả Hữu Tham tri) Grand coordinator and provincial governor (Tuần phủ) Supreme Vice-Censorate (Đô sát viện,Tả Hữu Phó đô ngự sử) | Major General, Colonel |
| Third senior rank (Chánh tam phẩm) | Senior Head of 6 Ministries (Chánh thiêm sự) Administration Commissioner (Cai bạ) Surveillance Commissioner (Ký lục) State Auxiliary Academician ofSecretariat (Thị trung Trực học sĩ) Court Auxiliary Academician (Trực học sĩ các điện) Court academician (Học sĩ các điện) Provincial governor (Hiệp trấn các trấn) | Brigadiers of Artillery & Musketry, Brigadier of Scouts, Banner Division Colonel |
| Third junior rank (Tòng tam phẩm) | Junior Head of Six Ministries (Thiếu thiêm sự) Senior Palace Administration Commissioner (Cai bạ Chính dinh) Chargé d'affaires (Tham tán) Court of Imperial Seals (Thượng bảo tự) General Staff (Tham quân) | Banner Brigade Commander |
| Fourth senior rank (Chánh tứ phẩm) | Provincial Education Commissioner of Quốc tử giám (Quốc tử giám Đốc học) Head of six ministries (Thiếu thiêm sự) Junior Court of Imperial Seals (Thượng bảo thiếu Khanh) Grand Secretariat (Nội các) Administration Commissioner of Trường Thọ palace (Cai bạ cung Trường Thọ) Provincial Advisor to Defense Command Lieutenant Governor (Tham hiệp các trấn) | Lieutenant Colonel of Artillery, Musketry & Scouts Captain, Police Major |
| Fourth junior rank (Tòng tứ phẩm) | Provincial Vice Education Commissioner of Quốc tử giám, Prefect (Tuyên phủ sứ), | Captain, Assistant Major in Princely Palaces |
| Fifth senior rank (Chánh ngũ phẩm) | Inner Deputy Supervisors of Instruction at Hàn Lâm Institutes, Sub-Prefects | Police Captain, Lieutenant or First Lieutenant |
| Fifth junior rank (Tòng ngũ phẩm) | Assistant Instructors and Librarians at Imperial and Hàn Lâm Institutes, Assistant Directors of Boards and Courts, Circuit Censors | Gate Guard Lieutenants, Second Captain |
| Sixth senior rank (Chánh lục phẩm) | Secretaries & Tutors at Imperial & Hàn Lâm Institutes, Secretaries and Registrars at Imperial Offices, Police Magistrate | Bodyguards, Lieutenants of Artillery, Musketry & Scouts, Second Lieutenants |
| Sixth junior rank (Tòng lục phẩm) | Assistant Secretaries in Imperial Offices and Law Secretaries, Provincial Deputy Sub-Prefects, Buddhist & Taoist priests | Deputy Police Lieutenant |
| Seventh senior rank (Chánh thất phẩm) | None | City Gate Clerk, Sub-Lieutenants |
| Seventh junior rank (Tòng thất phẩm) | Secretaries in Offices of Assistant Governors, Salt Controllers & Transport Stations | Assistant Major in Nobles' Palaces |
| Eighth senior rank (Chánh bát phẩm) | None | Ensigns |
| Eighth junior rank (Tòng bát phẩm) | Sub-director of Studies, Archivists in Office of Salt Controller | First Class Sergeant |
| Ninth senior rank (Chánh cửu phẩm) | None | Second Class Sergeant |
| Ninth junior rank (Tòng cửu phẩm) | Prefectural Tax Collector, Deputy Jail Warden, Deputy Police Commissioner, Tax Examiner | Third Class Sergeant, Corporal, First & Second Class Privates |
Along with the bureaucracy, nineteenth-century Vietnamese court politics also were dominated by several prominent figures. During Gia Long's reign, they wereNguyễn Văn Thành (1758–1817)-the Viceroy of Tonkin from 1802 to 06,Lê Văn Duyệt (1763–1832)-the Viceroy of Saigon from 1812 to 32,Phạm_Đăng_Hưng [vi](1764–1825)-the minister of the Ministry of Rites, twoMinh Hương ChineseTrịnh Hoài Đức (1765–1825) andLê Quang Định (1759–1813) who held the minister position of the Ministry of Military, all formerly fought with Gia Long against the Taysons.[28] DuringThieu Tri and earlyTu Duc' years (1840s–1860s), severalregents arose in the court politics, such asTrương Đăng Quế (1793–1865),Lâm Duy Hiệp (1803–1863), andNguyễn Tri Phương (1800–1873).[29] For example, Trương Đăng Quế, originally was the minister of the Ministry of Military, earned the position of regent andVăn Minh đại học sĩ (second-highest rank in the Confucian hierarchy) in 1841 at the time when emperorThieu Tri ascending the throne and became more powerful.[30] He attained more power after had successfully installed conservative emperorTu Duc to the crown in 1847, obtained the titleđại học sĩ (highest rank in the Confucian hierarchy),quận công (highest noble title of all Vietnam), virtually became the dictator of Vietnam during the early years of Tu Duc.[31]
Emperor Gia Long (r. 1802–19) published his legal codeHoàng Việt luật lệ, also known as theGia Long Code in 1812, comprised 398 articles and was the last legal code of the Vietnamese monarchy. It is based on much of the Chinese legal code and reduced women's legal status in society.[32] The Code was translated to French in 1865.
During the reign of Gia Long, the empire was divided into twenty-three quasi-militant protectoratestrấn and four military departmentsdoanh.[33] Each protectorate, besides having their own separated regional governments, were under patrol of one greater, powerful unit called Overlord of Citadel, or theViceroy. For examples, the northern protectorates hadBắc thành Tổng trấn (Viceroy of Northern Protectorates) in Hanoi, and southern protectorates hadGia Định thành Tổng trấn (Viceroy of Gia Định Protectorates) resides inSaigon.[34] Two famously viceroys during Gia Long's reign wereNguyễn Văn Thành (Hanoi) andLê Văn Duyệt (Saigon). By 1802, these were:
In 1831, Minh Mạng reorganised his empire by converting all these protectorates into 31 provinces (tỉnh). Each province had a series of smaller jurisdictions: the prefecture (phủ), the subprefecture (châu, in areas whereas having a significant population of ethnic minorities). Under prefecture and subprefecture, there was the district (huyện), the canton (tổng). Under district and canton, the bundle of hamlets around one common religious temple or social factor point, the villagelàng or the commune (xã) was the lowest administrative unit, which one respected person nominally took care of village administrative, which called lý trưởng.[35]
Two nearby provinces were combined into a pair. Every pair had a governor-general (Tổng đốc) and a governor (Tuần phủ).[36] Frequently, there were twelve governor-generals and eleven governors, although, in some periods, the emperor would appoint a "commissioner in charge of patrolled borderlands" (kinh lược sứ) that supervising entire northern of the southern part of the empire.[37] In 1803, Vietnam had 57 prefectures, 41 subprefectures, 201 districts, 4,136 cantons and 16,452 villages, and then by 1840s it had been increased to 72 prefectures, 39 subprefectures and 283 districts, which an average 30,000 people per district.[35] Cambodia had been absorbed into the Vietnamese administrative system, bore the nameTây Thành Province from 1834 to 1845.[38] With areas having minority groups likeTày,Nùng, Mèo (Hmong people),Mường,Mang andJarai, the Huế court imposed the co-existing tributary and quasi-bureaucratic governance system, while allowing these people to have their own local rulers and autonomy.[39]
In 1832, there were:
Trong một thông tri ngày 24/8/1898, Khâm sứ Trung kỳ đã viết "Từ nay, trên vương quốc An Nam không còn tồn tại hai chính quyền nữa mà chỉ tồn tại một chính quyền thôi" (tức chính quyền Pháp).
Đây là câu chuyện về một thế giới bị lãng quên của nền chính trị triều Minh Mạng. Phủ bụi hàng trăm năm, từ dưới mái hiên dột nát của toà Đông Các cho tới hành lang của Viện Đại học Huế, cuộc hành trình của các Châu bản triều Nguyễn không chỉ phản ánh số phận vương triều và sự chuyển dời thời đại mà bản thân chúng còn là chứng nhân tham dự trực tiếp vào những bước ngoặt thời đại. Bài viết này giúp tái hiện về một bước chuyển như thế của lịch sử: thời kỳ Minh Mạng và hé lộ một thế giới ẩn mình đằng sau các trang tài liệu lưu trữ.
