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The firstgovernment of ancient Macedonia was established by theArgead dynasty ofMacedonian kings during theArchaic period (8th–5th centuries BC). Theearly history of theancient kingdom of Macedonia is obscure because of shortcomings inthe historical record; little is known of governmental institutions before the reign ofPhilip II during the lateClassical period (480–336 BC). These bureaucratic organizations evolved in complexity under his successorAlexander the Great and the subsequentAntipatrid andAntigonid dynasties ofHellenistic Greece (336–146 BC). Followingthe Roman victory in theThird Macedonian War overPerseus of Macedon in 168 BC, the Macedonian monarchy was abolished and replaced by fourclient state republics. After a brief revival of the monarchy in 150–148 BC, theFourth Macedonian War resulted in another Roman victory and the establishment of theRoman province of Macedonia.
It is unclear if there was a formally established constitution dictating the laws, organization, and divisions of power in ancient Macedonia's government, although some tangential evidence suggests this. The king (basileus) served as thehead of state and was assisted by hisnoble companions androyal pages. Kings served as the chief judges of the kingdom, although little is known about Macedonia'sjudiciary. The kings were also expected to serve ashigh priests of the nation, using their wealth to sponsor variousreligious cults. The Macedonian kings had command over certain natural resources such as gold from mining and timber from logging. The right to mintgold, silver, and bronze coins was shared by thecentral and local governments.
The Macedonian kings served as thecommanders-in-chief of Macedonia's armed forces, while it was common for them to personally lead troops into battle. Surviving textual evidence suggests that theancient Macedonian army exercised its authority in matters such as the royal succession when there was no clearheir apparent to rule the kingdom. The army upheld some of the functions of apopular assembly, ademocratic institution that otherwise existed in only a handful of municipal governments within the Macedoniancommonwealth: theKoinon of Macedonians. With their mining and tax revenues, the kings were responsible for funding the military, which includeda navy that was established by Philip II and expanded duringthe Antigonid period.
The earliest known government in ancient Macedonia was their monarchy, which lasted until 167 BC when it was abolished by the Romans. Written evidence about Macedonian governmental institutions made beforePhilip II of Macedon's reign (r. 359 – 336 BC) is both rare and non-Macedonian in origin. The main sources of early Macedonian historiography are the works of the 5th-century BC historiansHerodotus andThucydides, the 1st-century ADDiodorus Siculus, and the 2nd-century ADJustin. Contemporary accounts given by those such asDemosthenes were often hostile and unreliable; evenAristotle, who lived in Macedonia, provides us with terse accounts of its governing institutions.[1]Polybius was a contemporary historian who wrote about Macedonia, while later historians includeLivy,Quintus Curtius Rufus,Plutarch, andArrian.[2] The works of these historians affirm thehereditary monarchy of Macedonia and basic institutions, yet it remains unclear if there was an established constitution for Macedonian government.[3][note 1] The main textual primary sources for the organization ofMacedonia's military as it existed under Alexander the Great include Arrian, Quintus Curtius, Diodorus, and Plutarch, while modern historians rely mostly on Polybius and Livy for understanding detailed aspects ofthe Antigonid-period military.[5][note 2]
At the head of Macedonia's government wasthe king (basileus).[6] From at least the reign of Philip II the king was assisted by theroyal pages (basilikoi paides), bodyguards (somatophylakes), companions (hetairoi), friends (philoi), an assembly that included members of the military, andmagistrates during the Hellenistic period.[3][7] Evidence is lacking for the extent to which each of these groups shared authority with the king or if their existence had a basis in a formal constitutional framework.[3][note 3] Before the reign of Philip II, the only institution supported by textual evidence is the monarchy.[8] In 1931, Friedrich Granier was the first to propose that by the time of Philip II's reign, Macedonia had a constitutional government with laws that delegated rights andcustomary privileges to certain groups, especially to its citizen soldiers, although the majority of evidence for the army's alleged right toappoint a new king and judge cases oftreason stems from the reign ofAlexander the Great (r. 336 – 323 BC).[9][10]Pietro De Francisci refuted these ideas and advanced the theory that the Macedonian government was anautocracy ruled by the whim of the monarch, although this issue of kingship and governance is still unresolved in academia.[8][11][12]
The Macedonian hereditary monarchy existed since at least the time ofArchaic Greece, perhaps evolving from a tribal system, and with roots inMycenaean Greece in view of its seeminglyHomeric aristocratic attributes.[13] Thucydides wrote that in previous ages Macedonia was divided into small tribal regions, each with its ownpetty king. The tribes ofLower Macedonia eventually coalesced under one great king, who exercised power as anoverlord over the lesser kings ofUpper Macedonia. TheArgead dynasty lasted from the reign ofPerdiccas I of Macedon until that ofAlexander IV of Macedon (r. 323 – 310 BC), supplanted by theAntigonid dynasty during the Hellenistic period.[14] The direct line offather-to-son succession was broken after the assassination ofOrestes of Macedon (r. 399 – 396 BC) in 396 BC, allegedly by hisregent and successorAeropus II of Macedon (r. 396 – c. 393 BC), clouding the issue of whetherprimogeniture was the established custom or if there was a constitutional right for an assembly of the army orof the people to choose another king.[15] It is also unclear whether certain male offspring were considered more legitimate than others, sinceArchelaus I of Macedon (r. 413 – 399 BC) was the son ofPerdiccas II of Macedon (r. c. 454 – 413 BC) and aslave woman, although Archelaus succeeded the throne after murdering his father's designatedheir apparent and son from another mother.[16]
Historical sources confirm that the Macedonian kings before Philip II at least upheld the privileges and responsibilities of hosting foreign diplomats, initiating the kingdom's foreign policies, and negotiating deals such as alliances with foreign powers. After the Greek victory at theBattle of Salamis in 480 BC, the Persian commanderMardonius hadAlexander I of Macedon (r. c. 497 – c. 454 BC) sent to Athens as a chief envoy to orchestrate an alliance between theAchaemenid Empire andAthens. The decision to send Alexander was based on hismarriage alliance with a noble Persian house and his previous formal relationship with the city-state of Athens.[17] With their ownership of natural resources includinggold,silver, timber, androyal land, the early Macedonian kings were also capable ofbribing foreign and domestic parties with impressive gifts.[18]
Little is known about thejudicial system of ancient Macedonia except that the king acted as thechief judge of the kingdom.[19] The Macedonian kings were alsosupreme commanders of the military, with early evidence including not only Alexander I's role in theGreco-Persian Wars but also with the city-state ofPotidaea accepting Perdiccas II of Macedon as their commanderduring their rebellion against theDelian League of Athens in 432 BC.[18][20] In addition to the esteem won by serving as Macedonia's supreme commander, Philip II was also highly regarded for his acts of piety in serving as thehigh priest of the nation. He performed dailyritual sacrifices and ledreligious festivals. Alexander imitated various aspects of his father's reign, such as granting land and gifts to loyal aristocratic followers.[21] However, he lost some core support among them for adopting some of the trappings of a Persian monarch, a "lord and master" as Carol J. King suggests, instead of a "comrade-in-arms" as was the traditional relationship of Macedonian kings with their companions.[12][21] His father Philip II had already shown signs of being influenced by the Persian Empire when he adopted similar institutions, such as having aRoyal Secretary, royal archive, royal pages, and athrone, although there is some scholarly debate as to the level of Persian influence in Philip's court.[22]
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The royal pages were adolescent boys and young menconscripted from aristocratic households and serving the kings of Macedonia perhaps from the reign of Philip II onward, although more solid evidence for their presence in the royal court dates to the reign of Alexander the Great.[23][note 4] Royal pages played no direct role in high politics and were conscripted as a means to introduce them to political life.[26] After a period of training and service, pages were expected to become members of the king's companions and personalretinue.[27] During their training, pages were expected to guard the king as he slept, supply him with horses, aid him in mounting his horse, accompany him on royal hunts, and serve him duringsymposia (i.e. formal drinking parties).[28] While conscripted pages would have looked forward to a lifelong career at court or even a prestigious post as a governor, they can also be regarded ashostages held by the royal court in order to ensure the loyalty and obedience of their aristocratic fathers.[29] The abusive punishment of pages, such as flogging, carried out by the king at times, led to intrigue and conspiracy against the Crown, as did the frequenthomosexual relations between the pages and the elite, sometimes with the king.[30] Although there is little evidence for royal pages throughout the Antigonid period, it is known that a group of them fled withPerseus of Macedon (r. 179 – 168 BC) toSamothrace followinghis defeat by the Romans in 168 BC.[31]
Royal bodyguards served as the closest members to the king at court and on the battlefield. They were split into two categories: theagema or thehypaspistai, a type of ancientspecial forces usually numbering in the hundreds, and a smaller group of men handpicked by the king either for their individual merits or to honor the noble families to which they belonged, respectively. Therefore, the bodyguards, limited in number and forming the king's inner circle, were not always responsible for protecting the king's life on and off the battlefield; their title and office was more a mark of distinction, perhaps used to quell rivalries between aristocratic houses.[26]
The companions, including the elitecompanion cavalry andpezhetairoi infantry, represented a substantially larger group than the king's bodyguards.[32] The ranks of the companions were greatly increased during the reign of Philip II when he expanded this institution to include Upper Macedonian aristocrats as well as Greeks.[33] The most trusted or highest ranking companions formed a council that served as an advisory body to the king, called thesynedrion.[12][32] A small amount of evidence also suggests that an assembly of the army during times of war and apeople's assembly during times of peace existed in ancient Macedonia. The first recorded instance dates to 359 BC, when Philip II called together a number of assemblies to address them with speech and raise their morale following the death ofPerdiccas III of Macedon (r. c. 365 – 359 BC) in battle against theIllyrians.[34]
Members of the council had the right to speak their minds freely, and although there is no evidence that they voted on affairs of state or that the king was even obligated to implement their ideas, it is clear that he was at least occasionally pressured to do so.[35] The assembly was apparently given the right to judge cases ofhigh treason andassign punishments for them, such as when Alexander III acted asprosecutor in the trial and ultimate conviction of three alleged conspirators in the plot to assassinate Philip II (while many otherswere acquitted).[36] However, there is perhaps insufficient evidence to allow a conclusion that councils and assemblies were regularly upheld, constitutionally grounded, or that their decisions were always heeded by the king.[12][37] At the death of Alexander the Great, the companionsimmediately formed a council to assume control of his empire; however, it was soon destabilized byopen rivalry and conflict betweenits members.[12][38] The army also usedmutiny as a tool to achieve political ends. For instance, whenPerdiccas had Philip II's daughterCynane murdered to prevent her own daughterEurydice II of Macedon from marryingPhilip III of Macedon (r. 323 – 317 BC), the army revolted and ensured that the marriage took place.[39]
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There isepigraphic evidence from the Hellenistic period and Antigonid dynasty that the Macedonian kingdom relied on various regional officials to conduct affairs of state. This included a number of high-ranking municipal officials, including the military-rootedstrategos andpolitarch, i.e. the elected governor (archon) of a large city (polis), but also the politico-religious office of theepistates. Although these were highly influential members of local and regional government, Carol J. King asserts that they were not collectively powerful enough to formally challenge the authority of the Macedonian king or his right to rule.[40]Robert Malcolm Errington affirms that no evidence exists about the personal backgrounds of these officials, although they may have been picked from the available aristocratic pools ofphiloi andhetairoi that were used to fill vacancies of officers in the army.[19]
Inancient Athens, theAthenian democracy was restored on three separate occasions following the initial conquest of the city byAntipater in 322 BC.[41] However, when it fell repeatedly under Macedonian rule it was governed by a Macedonian-imposedoligarchy composed of the wealthiest members of the city-state, their membership determined by the value of their property.[note 5] Yet other city-states were handled quite differently and were allowed a greater degree ofautonomy.[42] After Philip II conqueredAmphipolis in 357 BC, the city was allowed to retain its democracy, including its constitution, popular assembly,city council (boule), and yearly elections for new officials, but a Macedonian garrison was housed within the city walls along with a Macedonian royal commissioner (epistates) to monitor the city's political affairs.[43] However,Philippi, the city founded by Philip II, was the only other city in the Macedoniancommonwealth that had a democratic government with popular assemblies, since the assembly (ecclesia) ofThessaloniki seems to have had only a passive function in practice.[44] Some cities also maintained their own municipalrevenues, although evidence is lacking as to whether this was derived from local taxation orgrants from the royal court.[42] The Macedonian king and central government otherwise sustained strict control over the finances administered by other cities, especially in regards to the revenues generated bytemples and culticpriesthoods.[45]
Within the Macedonian commonwealth, or theKoinon of Macedonians, there is some epigraphic evidence from the 3rd century BC that foreign relations were handled by the central government. Although Macedonian cities nominally participated inpanhellenic events on their own accord, in reality the granting ofasylia (inviolability,diplomatic immunity, and theright of asylum atsanctuaries) to certain cities (e.g.Kyzikos inAnatolia) was handled directly by the king or a preexisting regulation.[46] Likewise, the city-states within contemporary Greekkoina (i.e., federations of city-states, thesympoliteia) obeyed the federal decreesvoted on collectively by the members of their league.[note 6] In city-states belonging to a league or commonwealth, the granting ofproxenia (i.e. the hosting of foreign ambassadors) was usually a right shared by local and central authorities.[47] While there is plenty of surviving evidence that the granting ofproxenia was the soleprerogative of central authorities in the neighboringEpirote League, a small amount of evidence suggests the same arrangement in the Macedonian commonwealth.[48] However, city-states that wereallied with the Kingdom of Macedonia and existed outside of Macedonia proper issued their own decrees regardingproxenia.[49] Foreign leagues also formed alliances with the Macedonian kings, such as when theCretan League signed treaties withDemetrius II Aetolicus andAntigonus III Doson ensuring enlistment of Cretan mercenaries into the Macedonian army, and electedPhilip V of Macedon (r. 222 – 179 BC) as honorary protector (prostates) of the league.[50]
The basic structure of the army was the division of the companion cavalry (hetairoi) with the foot companions (pezhetairoi), augmented by various allied troops, foreign levied soldiers, and mercenaries.[51][52] The foot companions existed perhaps since the reign of Alexander I of Macedon, while Macedonian troops are accounted for in the history of Herodotus as subjects of the Persian Empire fighting the Greeks at theBattle of Plataea in 479 BC.[53] Macedonian cavalry, wearingmuscled cuirasses, became renowned in Greece during and after their involvement in thePeloponnesian War (431–404 BC), at times siding with eitherAthens orSparta and supplemented by local Greek infantry instead of relying on Macedonian infantry.[54][55] Macedonian infantry in this period consisted of poorly trainedshepherds and farmers, while the cavalry was composed of noblemen eager to win glory.[56] An early 4th-century BC stone-carvedrelief from Pella shows a Macedonian infantryman wearing apilos helmet and wielding a short sword showing a pronounced Spartan influence on the Macedonian army before Philip II.[57]Nicholas Victor Sekunda writes that at the beginning of Philip II's reign in 359 BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry, the latter figure similar to that recorded for the 5th century BC.[54] However, Malcolm Errington cautions that any figures for Macedonian troop sizes provided by ancient authors should be treated with a degree of skepticism, since there are very few means by which modern historians are capable of confirming their veracity, and the true number could have been possibly lower or even higher than the amount stated.[58]
Imitating the Greek example of martial exercises and issuance ofstandard equipment for citizen soldiery, Philip II transformed the Macedonian army from a levied force of unprofessional farmers into awell-trained fighting force.[note 7] Philip II's infantry wieldedpeltai shields that already diverged from theaspis style shield featured in sculpted artwork of aKaterini tomb dated perhaps to the reign ofAmyntas III of Macedon.[57] His early infantry were also equipped with protective helmets andgreaves, as well assarissapikes, yet according to Sekunda they were eventually equipped with heavier armor such ascuirasses, since theThird Philippic of Demosthenes in 341 BC described them ashoplites instead of lighterpeltasts.[59][60] As evidenced by theAlexander Sarcophagus, troops serving Alexander the Great were also armored in the hoplite fashion.[61] However, Errington argues thatbreastplates were not worn by thephalanxpikemen of either Philip II or Philip V's reign periods (during which sufficient evidence exists). Instead, he claims that breastplates were only worn bymilitary officers, while pikemen wore thekotthybos stomach bands along with their helmets and greaves, wielding adagger as a secondary weapon along with theirshields.[62]
The elitehypaspistai infantry, composed of handpicked men from the ranks of thepezhetairoi and perhaps synonymous with earlierdoryphoroi, were formed during the reign of Philip II and saw continued use during the reign of Alexander the Great.[61][63] Philip II was also responsible for the establishment of the royal bodyguards (somatophylakes) and royal pages (basilikoi paides).[64] Philip II was also able to fieldarchers, including mercenaryCretan archers and perhaps somenative Macedonians.[65][66] It is unclear if theThracians,Paionians, andIllyrians fighting asjavelin throwers,slingers, and archers serving in Macedonian armies from the reign of Philip II onward were conscripted asallies via atreaty or were simply hiredmercenaries.[66] Philip II hired engineers such asPolyidus of Thessaly andDiades of Pella, who were capable of buildingstate of the artsiege engines andartillery firing largebolts.[65] Following the acquisition of the lucrative mines atKrinides (renamed Philippi), the royaltreasury could afford to field a permanent, professionalstanding army.[67] The increase in state revenues allowed the Macedonians to build asmall navy for the first time, which includedtriremes.[65][68][69] Although it did not succeed in every battle, the army of Philip II was able to successfully adopt themilitary tactics of its enemies, such as theembolon (i.e. 'flying wedge') formation of theScythians. This offered cavalry far greater maneuverability and an edge in battle that previously did not exist in the Classical Greek world.[65]
During the reign of Alexander the Great, the only Macedonian cavalry units attested in battle were the companion cavalry.[64] However, during his campaign in Asia against the Persian Empire he formed ahipparchia (i.e. unit of a few hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed entirely of ethnicPersians.[70] When marching his forces into Asia, Alexander brought 1,800 cavalrymen from Macedonia, 1,800 cavalrymenfrom Thessaly, 600 cavalrymen from the rest of Greece, and 900prodromoi cavalry fromThrace. Antipater was able to quickly levy 600 native Macedonian cavalry to fight in theLamian War when it began in 323 BC.[71] For his infantry, the most elite members of hishypaspistai were designated as theagema, yet a new term forhypaspistai emerged after theBattle of Gaugamela in 331 BC: theargyraspides ('silver shields').[72][73] The latter continued to serve after the reign of Alexander the Great and may have been of Asian origin.[note 8] Overall, his pike-wielding infantry numbered some 12,000 men, 3,000 of which were elitehypaspista and 9,000 of which werepezhetairoi.[74][note 9] Alexander continued the use of Cretan archers, yet around this time a clear reference to the use of native Macedonian archers was made. After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian backgrounds became commonplace and were organized intochiliarchs (units comprising around a thousand men each).[76]
The Macedonian army continued to evolve under the Antigonid dynasty. It is uncertain how many men were appointed assomatophylakes, which numbered eight men at the end of Alexander the Great's reign, while thehypaspistai seem to have morphed into assistants of thesomatophylakes rather than a separate unit in their own right.[note 10] At theBattle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BC, the Macedonians commanded some 16,000 phalanx pikemen.[77] Alexander the Great's 'royal squadron' of companion cavalry were similarly numbered to the 800 cavalrymen of the 'sacred squadron' (Latin:sacra ala;Greek:hiera ile) commanded by Philip V of Macedon during theSocial War of 219 BC. Due to the Roman historian Livy's accounts of the battles ofCallinicus in 171 BC andPydna in 168 BC, it is known that the Macedonian cavalry were also divided into groups with similarly named officers as had existed in Alexander's day. The regular Macedonian cavalry numbered 3,000 at Callinicus, which was separate from the 'sacred squadron' and 'royal cavalry'.[78] While Macedonian cavalry of the 4th century BC had fought without shields, the use of shields by cavalry was adopted from theCeltic invaders of the 270s BC who settled inGalatia, central Anatolia.[79]
Thanks tocontemporary inscriptions from Amphipolis and Greia dated 218 and 181 respectively, historians have been able to partially piece together the organization of the Antigonid army under Philip V, such as its command bytetrarchai officers assisted bygrammateis (i.e. secretaries or clerks).[note 11] The most elite, veteran Antigonid-period Macedonian infantry from at least the time of Antigonus III Doson were the peltasts, lighter and more maneuverable soldiers wieldingpeltai javelins, swords, and a smaller bronze shield thanMacedonian phalanx pikemen, although they sometimes served in that capacity.[note 12] Among the peltasts, roughly 2,000 men were selected to serve in the eliteagemavanguard, with other peltasts numbering roughly 3,000.[82] The amount of peltasts varied over time, perhaps never more than 5,000 men (the largest figure mentioned by ancient historians, an amount that existed in the Social War of 219 BC).[83] The peltasts fought alongside the phalanx pikemen, divided now into 'bronze shield' (chalkaspides) and 'white shield' (leukaspides) regiments, up until the very end of the kingdom in 168 BC.[84]
Following the initiative of Philip II, Macedonian kings continued to expand and equipthe navy.[68]Cassander maintaineda small fleet atPydna,Demetrius I of Macedon (r. 294 – 288 BC) had one atPella, andAntigonus II Gonatas (r. c. 229 – 222 BC), while serving as a general for Demetrius in Greece, used the navy to secure the Macedonian holdings inDemetrias,Chalkis,Piraeus, andCorinth. The navy was considerably expanded during theChremonidean War (267–261 BC), allowing the Macedonian navy to defeat the Ptolemaic Egyptian navy in the 255 BCBattle of Cos and 245 BCBattle of Andros, and enabling Macedonian influence to spread over theCyclades. Antigonus III Doson used the Macedonian navy to invadeCaria, while Philip V allegedly sent two-hundred ships, some of them captured from the Ptolemies, to fight in the (unsuccessful)Battle of Chios in 201 BC. The Macedonian navy was reduced to a mere six vessels as agreed in the 197 BCpeace treaty that concluded theSecond Macedonian War with theRoman Republic, although Perseus of Macedon quickly assembled somelemboi at the outbreak of theThird Macedonian War in 171 BC.[85]
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Theminting of silver coinage began during the reign of Alexander I as a means to pay for royal expenditures.[19] Archelaus I increased the silver content of his coins in addition to minting copper coins in order to promote foreign and domestic commerce.[86] Macedonians were the first who issued different coins forinternal and external circulation, a sophisticated approach which shows an elaborate monetary system at an early date.[87] In order to properly pay the soldiers of the Macedonian army with something other than general spoils of war, the minting of coinage significantly increased during the reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great, especially after the increase in state revenues following the seizure of thePangaion Hills.[88] During the Hellenistic period the royal houses of Macedonia,Ptolemaic Egypt, and theKingdom of Pergamon exercisedfull monopolistic control over mining activities, largely to ensure the funding of their armies.[89] By the end of theconquests of Alexander the Great, nearly thirty mints stretching from Macedonia toBabylon were producing nearly identical standard coins.[90] Yet the right to mint coins was shared by thecentral and some local governments, i.e. theautonomous municipal governments of Thessaloniki, Pella, and Amphipolis within the Macedonian commonwealth.[91]
In addition to mining, the crown and central authorities also raised revenues by collecting produce fromarable lands, timber from forests, andtaxes on imports and exports atharbors.[92] The king was capable of exploiting the mines,groves,agricultural lands, andforests belonging to the Macedonian state, although these were oftenleased asassets or given as grants to members of thenobility such as thehetairoi andphiloi.[93]Tariffs exacted on goods flowing in and out of Macedonianseaports began since at least the reign of Amyntas III, while theOikonomika byPseudo-Aristotle explains howCallistratus of Aphidnae (diedc. 350 BC) aided Perdiccas III in doubling the kingdom's annual profits on customs duties from 20 to 40talents.[94][95]
After the defeat of Perseus of Macedon at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC, theRoman Senate allowed the reopening of iron and copper mines, but forbade the mining of gold and silver by the four newly established autonomousclient states which replaced the Macedonian monarchy.[96][97][98] However, the monarchy was briefly revived by thepretender to the throneAndriscus in 150–148 BC, followed by the Roman victory in theFourth Macedonian War and establishment of theRoman province of Macedonia.[99][100][101] The Roman-era historians Livy and Diodorus Siculus asserted that the law was originally conceived by the Senate due to the fear that material wealth gained from gold and silver mining operations would allow the Macedonians to fund an armed rebellion.[102][103] It is also possible that the Romans were concerned with stemming inflation caused by an increasedmoney supply from Macedonian silver mining.[104] The Macedonians continued minting silver coins between 167 and 148 BC, and when the Romans lifted the ban on Macedonian silver mining in 158 BC it may have only reflected the local reality of this illicit practice continuing regardless of the Senate's decree.[102]
