World's states colored by systems ofgovernment:Parliamentary systems: Head of government is elected or nominated by and accountable to the legislature.
Presidential system: Head of government (president) is popularly elected and independent of the legislature.
Presidential republic
Hybrid systems:
Semi-presidential republic: Executive president is independent of the legislature; head of government is appointed by the president and is accountable to the legislature.
Assembly-independent republic: Head of government (president or directory) is elected by the legislature, but is not accountable to it.
Other systems:
Theocratic republic: Supreme Leader is both head of state and faith and holds significant executive and legislative power
Agovernment is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally astate.
In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists oflegislature,executive, andjudiciary. Government is a means by which organizationalpolicies are enforced, as well as a mechanism for determining policy. In many countries, the government has a kind ofconstitution, a statement of its governing principles and philosophy.
A government is thesystem togovern astate or community. TheCambridge Dictionary defines government as, "the system used for controlling a country, city, or group of people", or "an organization that officially manages and controls a country or region, creating laws, collecting taxes, providing public services".[5] While all types of organizations havegovernance, the wordgovernment is often used more specifically to refer to the approximately 200independent national governments on Earth, as well as their subsidiary organizations, such asstate and provincial governments as well aslocal governments.[6]
The wordgovernment derives from the Greek verbκυβερνάω [kubernáo] meaningto steer with agubernaculum (rudder), the metaphorical sense being attested in the literature ofclassical antiquity, includingPlato'sShip of State.[7] InBritish English, "government" sometimes refers to what's also known as a "ministry" or an "administration", i.e., the policies and government officials of a particular executive or governingcoalition. Finally,government is also sometimes used in English as asynonym for rule or governance.[8]
The moment and place that the phenomenon of human government developed is lost in time; however, history does record the formations of early governments. About 5,000 years ago, the first small city-states appeared.[9] By the third to second millenniums BC, some of these had developed into larger governed areas:Sumer,ancient Egypt, theIndus Valley civilization, and theYellow River civilization.[10]
One reason that explains the emergence of governments includes agriculture. Since theNeolithic Revolution, agriculture has been an efficient method to create food surplus. This enabled people to specialize in non-agricultural activities. Some of them included being able to rule over others as an external authority. Others included social experimentation with diverse governance models. Both these activities formed the basis of governments.[11] These governments gradually became more complex as agriculture supported larger and denser populations, creating newinteractions andsocial pressures that the government needed to control.David Christian explains
As farming populations gathered in larger and denser communities, interactions between different groups increased and the social pressure rose until, in a striking parallel with star formation, new structures suddenly appeared, together with a new level of complexity. Like stars, cities and states reorganize and energize the smaller objects within their gravitational field.[9]
Another explanation includes the need to properly manage infrastructure projects such as water infrastructure. Historically, this required centralized administration and complex social organisation, as seen in regions like Mesopotamia.[12] However, there is archaeological evidence that shows similar successes with more egalitarian and decentralized complex societies.[13]
Modern governments
Forms of government in 1908 fromThe Harmsworth atlas and Gazetter
In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, there was a significant increase in the size and scale of government at the national level.[15] This included the regulation of corporations and the development of thewelfare state.[14]
In political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy ofpolities, as typologies of political systems are not obvious.[16] It is especially important in thepolitical science fields ofcomparative politics andinternational relations. Like all categories discerned within forms of government, the boundaries of government classifications are either fluid or ill-defined.
Superficially, all governments have an officialde jure or ideal form. The United States is a federal constitutional republic, while the formerSoviet Union was a federalsocialist republic. However, self-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, defining regimes can be tricky, especiallyde facto, when both its government and its economy deviate in practice.[17] For example,Voltaire argued that "theHoly Roman Empire is neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire".[18] In practice, the Soviet Union was a centralized autocratic one-party state underJoseph Stalin.
Identifying a form of government can be challenging because manypolitical systems originate from socio-economic movements, and the parties that carry those movements into power often name themselves after those ideologies. These parties may have competing political ideologies and strong ties to particular forms of government. As a result, the movements themselves can sometimes be mistakenly considered as forms of government, rather than the ideologies that influence the governing system.[19]
Other complications include general non-consensus or deliberate "distortion or bias" of reasonable technical definitions of political ideologies and associated forms of governing, due to the nature of politics in the modern era. For example: The meaning of "conservatism" in the United States has little in common with the way the word's definition is used elsewhere. As Ribuffo notes, "what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism orneoliberalism"; a "conservative" in Finland would be labeled a "socialist" in the United States.[20] Since the 1950s, conservatism in the United States has been chiefly associated withright-wing politics and theRepublican Party. However, during the era ofsegregation manySouthern Democrats were conservatives, and they played a key role in theconservative coalition that controlled Congress from 1937 to 1963.[21][a]
Social-political ambiguity
Opinions vary by individuals concerning the types and properties of governments that exist. "Shades of gray" are commonplace in any government and its corresponding classification. Even the most liberal democracies limit rival political activity to one extent or another while the most tyrannical dictatorships must organize a broad base of support thereby creating difficulties for "pigeonholing" governments into narrow categories. Examples include the claims of theUnited States as being a plutocracy rather than a democracy since some American voters believe elections are being manipulated by wealthySuper PACs.[22] Some consider that government is to be reconceptualised where in times of climatic change the needs and desires of the individual are reshaped to generate sufficiency for all.[23]
Plato in his bookThe Republic (375 BC) divided governments into five basic types (four being existing forms and one being Plato's ideal form, which exists "only in speech"):[25]
Aristocracy (rule bylaw and order, like ideal traditional "benevolent" kingdoms that are not tyrannical)
Timocracy (rule by honor and duty, like a "benevolent" military; Sparta as an example)
Oligarchy (rule by wealth and market-based-ethics, like alaissez-faire capitalist state)
These five regimes progressively degenerate starting with aristocracy at the top and tyranny at the bottom.[26]
In hisPolitics, Aristotle elaborates on Plato's five regimes discussing them in relation to the government of one, of the few, and of the many.[27] From this follows the classification of forms of government according to which people have the authority to rule: either one person (anautocracy, such as monarchy), a select group of people (an aristocracy), or the people as a whole (a democracy, such as a republic).
The difference ofCommonwealths consisteth in the difference of thesovereign, or the person representative of all and every one of the multitude. And because the sovereignty is either in one man, or in an assembly of more than one; and into that assembly either every man hath right to enter, or not everyone, but certain men distinguished from the rest; it is manifest there can be but three kinds of Commonwealth. For the representative must need to be one man or more; and if more, then it is the assembly of all, or but of a part. When the representative is one man, then is the Commonwealth a monarchy; when an assembly of all that will come together, then it is a democracy or popular Commonwealth; when an assembly of a part only, then it is called an aristocracy. In other kinds of Commonwealth there can be none: for either one, or more, or all, must have the sovereign power (which I have shown to be indivisible) entire.[28]
Many monarchies were aristocracies, although in modern constitutional monarchies, the monarch may have little effective power. The termaristocracy could also refer to the non-peasant, non-servant, and non-city classes infeudalism.[34]
Democracy is a system of government wherecitizens exercise power byvoting anddeliberation. In adirect democracy, the citizenry as a whole directly forms aparticipatory governing body and vote directly on each issue. Inindirect democracy, the citizenry governs indirectly through the selection ofrepresentatives ordelegates from among themselves, typically byelection or, less commonly, bysortition. These select citizens then meet to form a governing body, such as a legislature orjury.
A republic is a form of government in which the country is considered a "public matter" (Latin:res publica), not the private concern or property of the rulers, and where offices of states are subsequently directly or indirectly elected or appointed rather than inherited. The people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people.[37][38]
A common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of state is not a monarch.[39][40]Montesquieu included bothdemocracies, where all the people have a share in rule, andaristocracies oroligarchies, where only some of the people rule, as republican forms of government.[41]
Federalism is a political concept in which agroup of members are bound together bycovenant with a governingrepresentative head. The term "federalism" is also used to describe a system of government in whichsovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units, variously called states, provinces or otherwise. Federalism is a system based upon democratic principles and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments, creating what is often called afederation.[42] Proponents are often calledfederalists.
Branches
Separation of powers in theUS government, demonstrating thetrias politica model
Governments are typically organised into distinct institutions constituting branches of government each with particularpowers, functions, duties, and responsibilities. The distribution of powers between these institutions differs between governments, as do the functions and number of branches. An independent, parallel distribution of powers between branches of government is theseparation of powers. A shared, intersecting, or overlapping distribution of powers is thefusion of powers.
Governments are often organised into three branches with separate powers: a legislature, an executive, and a judiciary; this is sometimes called thetrias politica model. However, inparliamentary andsemi-presidential systems, branches of government often intersect, having shared membership and overlapping functions. Many governments have fewer or additional branches, such as an independentelectoral commission orauditory branch.[43]
Presently, most governments are administered by members of an explicitly constitutedpolitical party which coordinates the activities of associated governmentofficials andcandidates for office. In amultiparty system of government, multiple political parties have the capacity to gain control of government offices, typically by competing inelections, although theeffective number of parties may be limited.
Amajority government is a government by one or moregoverning parties together holding an absolute majority of seats in the parliament, in contrast to aminority government in which they have only a plurality of seats and often depend on aconfidence-and-supply arrangement with other parties. Acoalition government is one in which multiple parties cooperate to form a government as part of acoalition agreement. In a single-party government, a single party forms a government without the support of a coalition, as is typically the case with majority governments,[44][45] but even a minority government may consist of just one party unable to find a willing coalition partner at the moment.[46]
A state that continuously maintains a single-party government within a (nominally) multiparty system possesses adominant-party system. In a (nondemocratic)one-party system a singleruling party has the (more-or-less) exclusive right to form the government, and the formation of other parties may be obstructed or illegal. In some cases, a government may have anon-partisan system, as is the case withabsolute monarchy ornon-partisan democracy.
Democracy is the most popular form of government. More than half of the nations in the world are democracies—97 of 167, as of 2021.[47] However, the world is becoming more authoritarian with a quarter of the world's population underdemocratically backsliding governments.[47]
The mid-twentieth century saw the rise of GermansociologistMax Weber's theory ofbureaucracy, bringing about a substantive interest in the theoretical aspects of public administration.
^Frederickson 2000, p. 12, quote: "...conservative southern Democrats viewed warily the potential of New Deal programs to threaten the region's economic dependence on cheap labor while stirring the democratic ambitions of the disfranchised and undermining white supremacy."
Frederickson, Kari (2000).The Dixiecrat Revolt and the End of the Solid South, 1932–1968. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.ISBN978-0-8078-4910-1.OCLC475254808.
Gallagher, Michael; Laver, M.; Mair, P. (2006).Representative Government in Western Europe (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.ISBN978-0070366848.OCLC906939909.
Haider-Markel, Donald P. (2014).The Oxford Handbook of State and Local Government. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-957967-9.OCLC904484428.
Kopstein, Jeffrey; Lichbach, Mark, eds. (2005).Comparative politics: interests, identities, and institutions in a changing global order (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0521708400.OCLC1293165230.
Renna, Thomas (September 2015). "The Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire".Michigan Academician.42 (1):60–75.doi:10.7245/0026-2005-42.1.60.
Ribuffo, Leo P. (2011). "20 Suggestions for Studying the Right now that Studying the Right is Trendy".Historically Speaking.12 (1):2–6.doi:10.1353/hsp.2011.0013.S2CID144367661.
Smelser, Neil J.; Baltes, Paul B. (2001).International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. New York: Elsevier Science.ISBN978-0-08-043076-8.OCLC43548228.
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